Hobbes and Locke Essay

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are indeed, two of the most brilliant philosophers that ever existed. They may have similarities and differences between them, but it is undeniable that their ideas contributed a lot in shaping the modern world. Both Hobbes and Locke perceive man as a central figure in a society. For Hobbes, it is man’s nature to be mindful of him exclusively, with self-interest going above everything else. On the other hand, Locke perceives man as both self-interested and concerned about other people. The two really have similarities and differences, but in order to know more about them, we need to compare their stand about various aspects of society. One important aspect that we could consider is sovereignty (Williams, 2006). Hobbes made it clear in his Leviathan that a political society’s sole task was to identify a person or a group as the sovereign. This pertains to an election of some sort, which would determine who would be the sovereign. Hobbes regards this sovereign as someone with absolute power, and that every person in the society should give him/them their absolute obedience. For Hobbes, the only time that the people would be sovereign is when they choose who will be the distinguished sovereign of all. Locke on the other hand, would put the public good above all else, thus affecting his notion of sovereignty (â€Å"John Locke,† 2004). In Locke’s Second Treatise of Government, he recognizes the permanence and irrevocability of the social contract, but this limits the legislation only for public good. If and whenever the public trust is violated, say perhaps the people in power overlooked the public good, then they would have to answer to the people. They retained the power to remove or replace the legislative, considered to be sovereign, with a new legislative. Though it is unclear in Locke’s writings, he somehow deposits sovereignty in the people. He recognizes the sovereignty that a legislative may have, but still, it is in the hands of the people to correct any inappropriate actions that violate the public good. Another aspect that we could use to compare Locke and Hobbes is their idea about government. But before that, we need to consider first how these two look at the natural law that all men follow. For Hobbes, man follows a naturally law that eventually leads to a state of war. Their equality leads to conflict between each other, eventually leading to war and chaos. Locke on the other hand, would consider man’s natural law as a movement towards equality and freedom. Both men draw their ideas about the government from their concept of natural law. For Hobbes, government is important because it can be used to control natural law. For Locke on the other hand, government is important in order to preserve natural law. In relation to this, another aspect that we can consider in comparing Hobbes and Locke is their idea about rights. Thomas Hobbes believed that the natural law that man follows result from the rights possessed by each person to do everything in the world. Since they’re allowed to do whatever they want because of the rights they possess, conflict would be unavoidable. In order to avoid this state of war, man follows a social contract in order to create a civil society. This requires them to forfeit or cede some of their natural rights in order to be protected. This somehow controls them from exercising all of their rights, but somehow protecting them from the impending destruction that results from conflicts and wars. As for John Locke, he believes that all of us possess Natural Rights, which is brought about by the state of nature that we follow in the society. These include the right to life, liberty, and property. Both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke believe that all men are equal according to the natural law. For Hobbes however, this equality is seen in a state of war, caused by man’s right to everything. These rights lead them into conflict and boils down to chaos. Still, Hobbes believe that this state of war to be an equal field, wherein the weakest can still kill the strongest. There is no one above others in this state of war. He also believes that all man is sensible by nature, and can agree upon each other to avoid these constant wars. Locke on the other hand, sees man optimistically, wherein they are governed according to reason, thus coexisting equally and peacefully. They are all equal in terms of the rights they possess, thus putting them on the same level as everyone else. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke both agree on the importance of civilizing man. It either control or preserve natural law, either way, it is beneficial. Putting this on the idea of â€Å"the savage†, we can see that they give emphasis on the importance of civilizing man because it makes him better. We can say that for these two, man can’t do away with the social establishments that he created, including the government and their notion of sovereignty, as it preserves and promote order in the society, something that both philosophers can somehow agree upon.

Book report of Man from the South Essay

One day, on an accidental occasion, a stranger is willing to bet with you on one of you skills which is not so critical, and you are likely to win. If you do succeed, according to the serious bet, you can get a quite new limousine from the man which is worth millions of dollars; If not, however, what you have to do is just to dedicate your little finger, which means, have that poor finger chopped instantly by the man and then you will be rushed to the hospital in the car you have not won. Thus, here comes your choice, to bet or not? Coincidentally, there is someone else facing the same situation as yours, who is a character in the short story, Man from the South, which was published in 2008 and proved to be an intriguing thriller full of twists and turns and with appalling consequences. Roald Dahl, the author of Man from the South, as Michael Caldon defined, is the master of creating surprises, in whose stories, readers can hardly predict the results unless they’ve turned into the last page because there are so many transitions. 2008) And here, this piece of book report is focused on some information about this article and readers’ reaction to it, which include the plot, author’s purpose, the main theme and Bloom’s opinions about it. The plot of Man from the South is about an intriguing story which starts in a relaxing place and at a comfortable moment with a casual beginning, a suspenseful development and a surprising result. On a very occasional afternoon when I, the narrator, am si tting in the chair at the swimming pool enjoying the sunshine, I meet a small old man there who is immaculately dressed. We are having a casual talk about the weather and the people in the pool. Soon later, a young naval cadet with his girlfriend, who have been swimming in the pool, join us. When he is lighting the cigarette he has offered us, he says that his lighter never failed, by which the old man was animated. Then the old man proposes a bet on whether the young man can light the lighter for ten times running without missing one. If he fulfills it, he can get a new Cadillac from the old man; and on the other way around, if he loses, what he is about to lose more is his little finger as well as the Cadillac. After fiercely wrestling with himself, the young man finally agrees, leaving behind his girlfriend’s dissuasion as well as mine. When everything of the experiment has been ready in the man’s house in annex and there are only two flicks left, which means that the brave young man has passed eight tests before, a strange old woman opens the door and then rushes forward shouting at the old man. Through her narration, people on the scene all know that the old man is a menace who is so addicted to betting that he has taken altogether forty-seven fingers from different people and lost eleven cars, and ended up owning nothing in the world. And the old woman herself, who has won everything from the old man a long time ago, only has one finger on her left hand, a thumb. In this short story, the author’s main purpose is to reveal the dark side of humanity through the small old man, which is mainly from two clues. Firstly, the full text stretches around the event, â€Å"betting†, which was provoked by the old man. For instance, when the young naval cadet says that his lighter always works, the old man just focuses on the word, †always† and immediately becomes excited, because it is possible for him to carry out another bet. Next, the story displays the dark side of the old man by describing his obsession with betting. When the old woman exposes the truth that he has taken forty-seven fingers and lost eleven cars so that in the end he has nothing at all of his own, the cruelty and abnormality of the man is entirely cleared. The theme of Man from the South is to sing the praises of the battle between two sides of human nature, the good and the dark side. From the article, it can be drawn that good side of humanity can eventually defeat the dark side, though it would take a lot of sacrifices and time. Undisputedly, in this story, the small old man is the symbol of the dark side, who is absolutely a betting psycho and is keen on mutilating others’ physical fitness, from which he can get pleasure. On the other hand, the other characters, including the young cadet, his girlfriend, I and the old woman are on the side of good nature. The young man is courageous enough to take that bet in risk of his left pinky finger, who is fighting against the old man’s insanity in person. As Leiv Arild Haugland insinuates, the self-confident young cadet is the critical character without whom the story cannot continue any further. (2012) And when the old man puts forward the absurd bet, the girl and I try to prevent the young man from getting into it to avoid a bloody consequence. In addition, the woman who has spent a lot of time winning everything from the old man to suppress his persecution of betting, is the genuine symbol of the good side of humanity. As Haakon Hoel Bakker reveals, the old woman who s thought to be unlikely to appear in the article turns out to be so natural and shocking a character as a result of her unusual experiences. (2012) Generally speaking, Man from the South, in Leiv Arild Haugland’s assertion, is an intriguing story which develops compactly and ends unexpectedly because of Roald’s competent creation,(2013) and my opinions about it are illustrated in the following five aspects. Firstly, in my opinion, the author does achieve his purpose of this story to reveal the dark side of human nature through the crazy old man. By describing his sensitivity towards the word â€Å"always† and his excitement about carrying out the experiment, the author portrayed a man who is mentally disturbed and addicted to betting. After his past is exposed, the dark nature of the old man, which drove him to get joy from hurting others, is exposed as well. Secondly, I think the writing of this article is quite powerful and fascinating, which often holds my breath especially when it comes to the suspenseful part. I would not deny that when the test goes on where the young man is flicking for the eighth time, I am frightened by the cliffhanging plot and I just want to escape from the oncoming cruel scene and to skip to the last part to see if it has a good ending. Just as Annie claims that Roald Dahl is inspired and experienced in writing from the other side compared to everyman and thus, has a good understanding of the art of story. (2010) Next, I suppose the strength of this story is very obvious, including the compact plot, eye-catchy description and surprising results. What’s more, as Haakon Hoel Bakker maintains, another attraction of this article is the usage of the old man’s English dialect in the dialogues, such as the â€Å"pleees† instead of â€Å"please†, â€Å"dat† instead of â€Å"that†, which proves the man is from south and matches the title(2012); the weakness of this story, however, is that some settings are not clearly stated, which can be quite puzzling. For example, what is the relationship between the old man and the woman, why the old woman bet with the old man a long time ago and why it is her that took the old man here? At last, my overall response to this short article is â€Å"thriller†, no matter the plot or the description. As to the plot, it is betting in a price of the little finger and especially when the old woman shows her finger that is quite scary; in addition, the thriller in description embodies in the process of the experiment, when it is approaching hard to the final tenth try. Therefore, seeing that how exciting the story is, I will absolutely recommend it to my friends to make them experience such a wonderful and frightening journey as well. In conclusion, Man from the South, which is outstanding in plot construction, description and coherent writing, is worth reading for a thousand times. When the old man puts forward the conditions, when the young man agrees to take the bet, when the experiment is carried out in the eighth flick and when the old woman shows her left hand with only a thumb, the story succeeds in attracting readers’ attention and then twisting their expectation into a totally different direction. As Tazar presumes, Man from the South is right the reflection of Roald Dahl’s attainments in producing a fascinating world in his works,(2011) which speaks highly of both this story and his creative writing. Man from the South not only shows the dark side of someone, but also indicates that righteous people can finally defeat the insanity.

Costing and Economics of Textile Production Essay

Costing and Economics of Textile Production - Essay Example A company will invest in country in which support infrastructure is available; a company will invest in a country with good transport network, good energy and electricity services and good communication network, a country with poor infrastructure will not be appropriate to invest in as it will not enable smooth running of the company. Poor infrastructure will not enable the company to transport its goods on time and this may also cause an increase in the cost of production of its goods and therefore it will be less likely for the multinational company to invest. Some countries have abundant resources and factors of production, example raw materials used for production or even abundant skilled and cheap labour, when such advantages exist then there is a high likelihood for a multinational company to invest, a good example of this is why many multinational companies invest in third world countries, because there is abundant and cheap factors of production. However multinational companies will be less likely to invest in countries where such advantages do not exist.

Albee's play, The American Dream Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Albee's play, The American Dream - Essay Example Simply how life used to be prior to the existence of contemporary society. The sole purpose as to why both dad and mum stayed with Grandma is because she represented the old set of values that have since been eroded by the contemporary values. This character was symbolically used by the author to depict the power of the past to predict the happenings of the future. This is demonstrated by Grandma being able to tell the truth concerning the real intent of the visit by Mrs. Baker. Additionally, this power is demonstrated by her knowledge of the Young Man being an identical twin of the first son of the family. In the social sphere, this character would otherwise be considered obscene. Her role as the oldest person in the play is somewhat unique with regards to theatre plays. It is imperative to reiterate the fact that all the characters of the play are symbolic in a way of the American society. As such, when Grandma becomes an exterior commentator away from the main scene, it symbolizes a shift from the old values that have eminently existed in the American society. The interaction between Grandma and the Young Man represent a collision between the old and the new. As such, in the conversation between Grandma and the Young Man, the Young Man asserts that he has no talents. The metamorphosis of the old to the new seems not to have been complete. Grandma represents a holistic being while the Young Man is a representation of the corrupt and incomplete being of the contemporary society. When Grandma refers to the Young Man as the American dream she asserts that he is the evolution of old into new. She states that he is the embodiment of what the American dream entails and what it would mean for society. The character of Grandma is a rather wise and cunning element in the play. She demonstrates her nature of being wise by knowing what is right for daddy and mommy. She understands that the presence of the Young Man in the family will be good to the family in the end. He r cunning nature is demonstrated by her decision to pretend that she had been taken by the van man. Moreover, when she returns to the scene, she gestures to Mrs. Baker to ignore her presence. The name of this character in context of the contemporary society signifies an aging or phasing out of the old rules. Simply put, a fading and non-relevance of the old values in the modern world. The Young Man When Grandma left the house, she left the Young Man to represent her. Simply put, he was a replacement of the old values of society by the new values. However, unlike Grandma whose personal possessions are represented by boxes, the Young Man is empty inside. The Young Man is the principle focus of the American Dream, he represents the future prospects of society as a whole. As such, when he says that he has no inner emotion, it translates to mean that the American Dream does not have substance to propel its realization. The American Dream, in the wider sense, has no feelings. When the You ng Man knocked on the door and subsequently entered the life of daddy and mommy, his sole motivation was money. This sheds light into the driving force of contemporary society. Their material minded nature is symbolized by this behavior of the Young Man. He is depicted as physically perfect. However, he is devoid of any inner substance. The Young Man is for sale. He states that he would do anything for money. His service and contribution to the family and the society as a whole are for sale. He represents the vanity associated with the contemporary

Qatar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Qatar - Essay Example tructure that exists within many of Qatar’s main cities, the nation itself has chosen to build new cities and form entirely new residential and commercial areas where none previously existed. This growth plan is of course optimistic but presents unique opportunities for the development and consideration of green/renewable energy alternatives that this infrastructure and society can leverage. Due to the fact that these cities are truly being born from nothing, the potential for developing a renewable and green infrastructure base is perhaps higher as compared to any other region of the world. Yet, opportunity alone does not create a guarantee that green and renewable energy will be the locus of interest for the developers of these respective cities. Instead, the remainder of this chapter will reveal the way in which approach determines whether or not the renewable/green infrastructure and energy provision that Qatar will engage within its new and developing cities will ultimate ly be successful or not (Koch 2014; Alzubaidi2013). Whereas it is of course tempting to utilize Qatar’s mass levels of financial reserves as a means of purchasing the most advanced green and renewable energy systems that are currently available, this particular temptation must at least partially be resisted. The underlying reason for this has to do with the fact that Qatar is a unique nation within unique latitude that exhibits a litany of unique environmental challenges. First and foremost among these is of course the fact that Qatar is a relatively hot climate that has very little rainfall and must therefore be considerate of the overall cyber resources that are involved in any means of energy production. Accordingly, one of the most effective processes that can be pursued is to ensure that Qatar utilizes targeted metrics and goals with respect to what it envisions as the future of sustainable and green energy within the nation. As such, rather than merely leveraging the state

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 4

Marketing - Essay Example Jurlique has been considered as an example for defining these parameters. It is one of the leading skincare brands of the Australia presently. The organization currently retails a varied range of more than 560 products that include skin care products, perfumes, hair care oils, facials as well as baby creams among others (Jurlique, 2013). Retail format The term, ‘retail format’ refers to the integrated supply chain system which is used by organisations to distribute the products to the ultimate customers. In today’s tumultuous business world, to achieve the desired success, retailers have to be abreast of the latest retail trends to get it imbibed in their retail format. Recognizing this global change, as per the report published by Australian Centre for Retail Studies (ACRC), innovation and compliance with customer needs can be regarded as the key attributes or success factors with respect to retail format where store locations as well as its decor play a vital ro le in persuading customers towards purchase (Australian Centre for Retail Studies, 2007). ... Source: Landini Associates (n.d.) In the current day scenario, market places are shaping as per global trend focusing on the profound changes in the modern retail sector. The locations of the retail stores thus become a vital parameter to attain the attention of the targeted consumers. Notably, when assessing the location strategies of Jurlique, it can be observed that the polices of the organization principally focuses on the types as well as size of the store, merchandising applications, merchandise mix as well as customer service providing methods among others (Jurlique, 2013). Effective segmentation of the product also helps to identify the target market needs and therefore avail the organisation with an opportunity to obtain greater customer loyalty (Mendes & Themido, 2004). In the context, the strategies applied by Jurlique when selecting its retail store locations can be identified to be focused on the traffic flow and accessibility of the outlets which helps to increase the a wareness of the consumers regarding the brand as well as the products. To be specific, Jurlique has been operating its stores in various locations in Australia including the Bondi Beach and many other crowded, metropolitan cities of New South Wales, Glenside and many other shopping hubs in South Australia as well as Melverne East and Melbourne in Victoria among others (Jurlique, 2013). Assessing the economic conditions and geographic potentialities of these stores it can be observed that these areas have deciphered significant growth in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Ai Group Economics and Research Team, 2013). Not only customers, but such

Family Theories Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Family Theories - Research Paper Example Not only are they traumatized for an extended period of their life (as will become apparent in the literature review), they face life with the same fear and are known to instil it into their children. It is a vicious cycle that must be broken. Literature Review According to Hague, children in households where their mothers are abused suffer greatly from distress, mental abuse and are prone to exhibiting adverse reactions in social situations. Even if the children are not being abused, many academics and intellectuals term this as indirect abuse (Mullender & Hague, 2002). â€Å"It is only recently that researches have focused on the children being affected by families suffering from domestic violence† (Fantuzzo, 1999). Not much literature had been written on children suffering in families with domestic violence, especially on a national basis. However, the need for such researches has been felt and is now being carried out by academics and governments increasingly. Nonetheless, quantifying the intangible effects of domestic violence on children is proving to be hard as the methodologies are, as yet, still weak. The article, in the year 1999, focused on finding worthy methodologies. Then in 2000, the department of paediatrics of the University of Arizona carried out a research. According to their findings, domestic violence in a child's home was more frequent â€Å"if the mother had experienced physical abuse during childhood (65 %,) than if she had not (48 %)†, (Bowen, 2000). These statistics can be explained by Levendosky’s findings on the parenting in battered women a year later (USA). They found the women were depressed, had low self esteem, and felt powerless to do anything. In addition to this, â€Å"an increasing number... There is an obvious need for more research on this topic. Many aspects that arise from domestic violence in families with small children remain untouched. And while there are many solutions now available for members of such families to pursue, there is little that the children can do to safeguard themselves. They must depend on their parents and/or elder siblings. This leaves no choice but to uproot the problem, so that it never harms the children or other members of the family again. However, little has been done to prevent issues of domestic violence from arising in the first place compared to what has been done to solve the problem in this day and age. While the problem that is occurring IS being addressed, the main focus has been on how to stop it, not to eradicate it from the society completely. Small children form the future generations of this world. They are pure in their thoughts and heart, bear no malice for others, and love unconditionally. However, they are dependent on o thers. In exposing them to the violence in their families, parents/guardians ensure that the children grow up to be either, traumatized and socially underdeveloped, or to follow their examples. They may become the abusers when they grow up, or end up in abusive relationships. Awareness and prevention campaigns must be carried out on a wide scale as well as more research into this issue.

Who wants to be a Millionaire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Who wants to be a Millionaire - Essay Example It is better to have something than have nothing at all. There is a high possibility that an average person might never have a chance, for instance, to win millions of shillings. To think that the same individual will throw away such a golden chance on uncertain possibility is wishful thinking. No rational human being would take such a risk; but then is life not full of surprises, after all no person knows what is in store for the future. There is a probable possibility that the average individual could also hit the jackpot, and go home very rich if he or she took a little time to take a risk. They say the best things come to those who take risks, and why not take that risk; it might be the real deal breaker after all (Dwijen 22). Other factors may influence an individual’s decision making when it comes to making choices in a lottery game. These are the social-economic factors and demographic factors. Social-economic factors are the economic and social experiences and realities that assist in molding ones attitudes, personality and lifestyle. Examples include education, level of wealth, social awareness and profession (John 34). Demographic factors include the age of an individual, marital status and sex. A person’s level of wealth may influence an individual to take a risk or play safe. If a person is rich, he or she will probably take the risk because he or she will have no setbacks if he or she loses, since he or she has lots of other wealth. On the other hand, individuals with fewer riches will go for the safe deal because that money may be all they possess. An educative individual will go for safe lottery, since it is more rational to do so. Male individuals will take risks while female ind ividuals will play safe; this is because men are risk takers and women not much risk takers. Lastly, the premium attached to guessing is sometime worthy and

Pre-certification assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pre-certification assignment - Essay Example In level 212 the patients reach 211 (1, 3 and 4,) the history of the patient also demonstrates the patient to have had episodes of sore throat with is a sign of tenderness of the tonsils. The patient also has difficulty in swallowing which is a typical sign of tonsillar enlargement. In addition, the patient presents with fever in the history. Finally, in level three, the patient seems to have taken two courses of antibiotics even though it is nonspecific; most strep antibiotics are 7 to 12 days The patient should have a history of snoring, bleeding, suspected sleep apnea hyponasal speech persistent drooling or more than six months accompanied by grade three or four tonsillar enlargements with the patient having normal palate This patient qualifies for the criteria 400 for the diagnosis of adenotonsillar hypertrophy. In 412, the patient snores a sign of sleep apnea she also has signs of bleeding. In 411, the speech is hyponasal with the sore strep throat; the patient, however, does not meet the level 413. 420 The patient also meets the criteria 413 as he has a 4+ tonsillar enlargement on the right that touches the uvula and 3+ in the left tonsil that is pink in appearance. The patient seems to meet the 430 criteria, as there is no physical pathology with the palate for it is not reported. In this, the assumption is that only the pathological findings are recorded. The patient, therefore, meets all the requirements for these criteria for the insurance cover The patient needs to present with symptoms of tonsillar history enlargement of grade 3 or for by physical exam. Besides, on the physical exam the patient should have a normal palate. Also, the patient needs to have history any of the following symptoms, bleeding, suspected sleep apnea hyponasal speech persistent drooling or more than six months. The patient meets the criteria for this

Silver, the Inventor of the Adhesive Polymer on Which Post-It is Based Essay

Silver, the Inventor of the Adhesive Polymer on Which Post-It is Based - Essay Example The specific product, which is unique worldwide, has made 3M a leading firm in managing innovation. The review of the actual history of Post-It, up to its entrance in the market, proves that the development of the particular product has been quite difficult for its designers. In fact, the inventor of Post-It, the chemist Spencer Silver, spent many years in trying to persuade leaders in his organization in regard to the value of his invention: an adhesive polymer of various uses. At the end, and mostly due to the efforts of Silver and those who believed in the product’s value, Post-It entered the global market. The case of 3M and Post – It shows that product innovation can be a quite challenging process, the complexity of which is often not clear even to those working for its promotion. In the context of modern businesses, product innovation is a concept which is related to the following target: the examination and evaluation of ‘the need for innovative products and services’ (Rainey 2005, p.10). The above definition leads to the assumption that product innovation is a rather simple process. Still, such assumption would not be valid. In fact, product innovation has a series of aspects which are analytically presented in the sections that follow. Another characteristic of product innovation is the following one: the methods used for the promotion of product innovation within each organization are not standardized (Rainey 2005, p.10). Different tools and techniques can be used for promoting product innovation, depending on the potentials of each organization to provide the required funds and infrastructure (Rainey 2005, p.10). One of the most common issues that appear each time that product innovation schemes are promoted is the following one: can the particular process be introduced in any organization or it is necessary that certain requirements are met. Moreover, innovation, as a process is based on certain rules or it is not controllable as of its structure and components? The answer to the above questions can be identified in the study of Cogliandro (2007). According to Cogliandro (2007) innovation, in all its aspects, needs to be based on three principles: a) innovation needs to be related to all aspects of the organization; in fact, innovation would be expanded across organization covering all organizational activities (Cogliandro 2007, p.18) and during all periods of the life of the organization.

The Virgin of Guadalupe Essay Example for Free

The Virgin of Guadalupe Essay It was clear to me that the Virgin of Guadalupe is a powerful cultural symbol of Mexican identity and nationhood. In colonial times the Virgin of Guadalupe was interpreted as a native, loving and forgiving mother, the intercessor to God the Father and his son, Jesus Christ. Today Guadalupe has been reinterpreted as an empowering symbol of liberation and action rather than as female passivity. In contemporary society the populist appeal of the image cuts across all sectors of Mexican life, and her image is displayed not only in churches, but can also be seen in taxis, buses, on tee-shirts, amulets and as tattoos. Chicano and other Latino societies helped establish the Virgin of Guadalupe as an archetypal emblem of mestizaje. Criollos interpreted Marys appearance that Mexico was a favored city. From reading I learned that the origin of the importance of the Virgin of Guadalupe can be traced back to the religious beliefs and ceremonies that animated the daily lives of pre-Hispanic people from birth to death. Even though the Spanish conquest imposed Christianity and colonialism on the original populations, the Catholic Church allowedsome say even encouragedthe association between specific locations and Aztec deities as a means to effect an easier transition from native religions to Christianity, resulting in the introduction of localized patron saints. Worship of the Virgin Mary was encouraged through a variety of manifestations, such as the Virgin of Remedios and the Immaculate Conception. After the conquest, the church destroyed shrines to indigenous gods and goddesses, and tried to stamp out the cult of Tonantzin, an Aztec virgin deity. Since manifestations of the Virgin had encouraged the conquistadors, many images of the Virgin Mary had made their way to the New World. Indians, mestizos, and criollos lent new meanings to the cult of the Virgin Mary. The devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe is a syncretic manifestation of Catholic and Aztec beliefs. The Virgin of Guadalupe continued to play an increasingly important role in the development of Mexican national identity. The criollos interpreted her appearance as a legitimization of their national aspirations and propagated the cult as part of a plan to build New Spain in Mexico. The campaign to legitimize the Virgin of Guadalupe began in 1648 with Miguel Sanchezs book which argued that Guadalupe was authentically American, emphasizing her appearance to a poor, humble native and stressing the Virgins use of Nahuatl to address Juan Diego. Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz wrote one known sonnet to the Virgin of Guadalupe in 1680, published in 1729, which retells the story of the apparition and reinforces Marys function as protectress of the Americas in her role as la Rosa Mejicana. A symbol of popular religiosity and a feminine metaphor in the comprehension of the divine, The Virgin of Guadalupe continues to convey a paradoxical message that can be manipulated for political purposes.

State-funded faith schools

State-funded faith schools This paper will look at the way in which state-funded faith schools came into being in the United Kingdom. It will argue that government educational policy and its immigration and integration policies play a key role in determining the need for the provision of state faith schools. The state funding of faith schools has a long history in the United Kingdom. The National Society of the Church of England founded 17,000 schools to offer education to the poor between 1811 and1860. (DfES, p.2) The state funding of these schools began in 1870 when Church and other voluntary institutions began to receive funds to supplement and assist them in their educational provision. (Cush, p.435) As at January 2008, of the 20,587 maintained primary and secondary schools in the UK, 6,827 have a religious character and of these nine are Muslim. (Bolton, 2009,Table 1) There are three types of schools with religious character in the UK maintained, academies and independent schools with the state providing funding for the first two. Maintained schools are either: voluntary controlled which means the Local Education Authority provides all the funding in return for control mostly over religious education and governance (most Church of England schools are voluntary controlled); and voluntary aided where the state provides 90% of the funding for more control over religious education and governance (most other denominations fall into this category, especially Roman Catholic schools). (Cush p. 435-436). Christian and Jewish faith schools were the only faith schools receiving state funding until 1998 when the Islamia Schools Trust, after a battle of 12 years, was awarded voluntary aide d status for its schools. Whilst there are only nine state funded Muslim schools, there are over 100 Muslim schools in Britain. These independent schools tend to co-ordinate their efforts through the Association of Muslim Schools. On November 11th, 2007 during Prime Ministers Questions, the government stated that regarding education it is committed to a diverse system of schools driven by parental needs and aspirations; that the Government does not have targets for faith schools but remains committed to supporting the establishment of new schools by a range of providers. (Bolton, 2009, p.14) Reaffirming the Governments position on faith schools, Ed Balls, the then Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families said on January 9th, 2008: It is not the policy of the Government or my Department to promote more faith schools. We have no policy to expand their numbers. That should be a matter for local communities. (Bolton, 2009, p.16) The drive for some members of the Muslim community towards their own faith schools needs to be understood in light of the backdrop of Muslim migration into the UK, their subsequent integration and recent world events. The first Muslims arriving from South Asia in the 1950s were semi-skilled or unskilled labourers. They had a tendency to stay insulated from the wider community this being as much a function of their own choice as a response to the racism and social exclusion they were experiencing. (Hefner, p.227) Subsequent open immigration policies of the 1970s allowed their families to follow and now 75% of all Muslims in the UK are from South Asia. According to the 2001 census, the approximately 1.6 million British Muslims make up roughly 3% of the population. (Hefner, p. 227) In the UK, Muslim has become synonymous with Pakistani. Third generation British-born Muslim families no longer think of themselves as immigrants, although what it means to be a British Muslim is still a concept being negotiated. Our identities are defined as much by our own understanding of our histories as by how we think others perceive us. In recent years, the identity of Muslims has been tied up with world events and striking representations in the media. Since September 11th, 2001, Muslims have been bombarded by an overwhelmingly hostile media and a government apparently intent on impinging on the liberties and human rights of its Muslim citizens. Salma Hafejee described an event that evoked not uncommon feelings in her 21 year old son. Speaking on a film for Our Lives, a project which explored the insights and experiences of Muslim women in Bradford, she told the story of a weekend visit her son took to Barcelona. Coincidently, on the weekend of his trip there had been a series of arrests made in Barcelona in connection with what h ad been described as terrorist activities. On his return home, her son was met by police and questioned for several hours. She said he had always felt British and believed that his British passport would protect him, but for the first time he felt an alien in his own home. (Speak-it, 2009) One can well imagine that this experience and the constant barrage of negative images relating to his faith in the media must have been bewildering. Naturally surrounded by such hostility and otherised in this way, a community would have a tendency to close ranks and look inward for comfort, protection and security. This situation can be seen as some justification for why the Muslim community turned to Muslim schools to preserve their communal identity and Muslim practices. The Education Reform Act 1988 states that schools should promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and in society Some Muslims were beginning to question whether a non-Muslim schooling environment would be able to adequately fulfil that need for their children. The Education Act of 1944 made religion the only subject it was compulsory to teach in school, but the teaching of religion is relatively superficial, meaning that from the perspective of those for whom a religious ethos is important, mainstream schools are unable to provide the spiritual and religious dimension adequately. How governments deal with the provision of religion does seem to have some bearing on the educational choices of parents. An examination of Belgium and The Netherlands shows that when the government provision of religious education is high, the demand for religious schools is muted. In Belgium, 4% of the population is Muslim primarily of Turkish or Moroccan descent. Since 1975, it has been the law to provide Islamic instruction in state schools on the same basis as other religions are taught. The first, and only, state funded Islamic primary school opened in 1989 and seems to be linked to the inability of two municipalities to appoint officially recognised teachers and thereby their refusal to provide Islamic instruction. In The Netherlands, 6% of the population is Muslim and also primarily of Turkish or Moroccan descent. The state does not have a policy for the specific provision of Islamic instruction and there are 45 Islamic schools in The Netherlands. (Merry, 2005) In the UK, the lack of adequate provision of religious education in mainstream state schools, the hostility of the media, the government and the public to their faith and community, and the recorded underachievement of Pakistanis in mainstream schools combine to form a powerful motivator for Muslim parents to take over control of the education of their child. Given the UK governments expansive rhetoric about promoting and supporting Britain to be a multi-cultural society, and its stated commitment to a diverse system of schools driven by parental needs and aspirations, the support of Muslim state funded schools is an easy stretch. But an agreed definition of a multicultural society seems woefully lacking. The government has a policy of promoting multiculturalism but if it is unable to define what a multicultural society could look like, how does it know that the policies it is promoting are effective to meeting this end? Todays multicultural Britain has many faces dependent largely on ethnicity, geography and social class, which in turn is one of the determinants of educational achievement. Is multicultural simply the acknowledgment of diversity in our society or is it an engagement with that diversity to create a society that is pluralistic? Does it mean that we are all free to live in our own sub-worlds without interface with the wider community or does it mean that we are encouraged to engage with each other? Where is the thread that binds us as citizens if we live entirely culturally independent lives? This was a question that was raised by Ray Honeyford more than twenty years ago and it is still a question that warrants addressing thoughtfully today. In 1982 Bradford Council issued guidelines for its aim in education. These included: preparing children for a life in a multicultural society; countering racism and the inequalities of discrimination; developing the strengths of cultural and linguistic diversity; and responding to the needs of minority groups. Ray Honeyford was a headteacher in a Bradford middle school and he was concerned that the educational policies he was expected to implement were unworkable. He argued that the 20% of Bradfords Islamic immigrant population had intentions to remain in Britain. For their sake and for the sake of others, they should participate fully in British life, and that in order to do so effectively their education needed to stress the primacy of the English language, and British culture, history and traditions. (Dalrymple, 2002) In 1984, Honeyford wrote an article that was rejected by The Times Educational Supplement before being published by the far right Salisbury Review. The fact that it was this publication that was the first method of transmission connoted a lot to its readers and no doubt would have influenced the subsequent interpretation of the article itself. In Education and Race an Alternative view Honeyford (2006) suggested that the perversion of language (he had a Masters in linguist ics) around race and cultural issues had made it impossible to speak honestly about the concerns and realities that our increasingly diverse society was throwing up. He highlighted that lumping together all non-whites into one category that was black created a dichotomy of anti-white solidarity. What we, today, call other-ing. His primary concern was the impact of an imposed multicultural mindset on the education of his students. British law obliges a parent to ensure that his or her child is registered and attends school regularly. He argued that the tendency for Asian families to take their children out of school and send them to the sub-continent for months at a time was not only illegal but had obvious negative educational effects. The Department of Education and Science turned a blind eye leaving headteachers, like Honeyford, to comply with an attendance policy based on the parents country of origin. He found this indefensible and cast it as an officially sanctioned policy of r acial discrimination. (Honeyford, 2006) Honeyford further highlighted that the absence of English as a primary language of instruction at the school left the ethnic white minority students in his schools educationally disadvantaged. His broader concern was how the functioning of inner cities with its production of ethnic ghettos, and multi-racial educational policies could produce an integrated and harmonious society. He concluded: I suspect that these elements, far from helping to produce harmony, are, in reality, operating to produce a sense of fragmentation and discord. And I am no longer convinced that the British genius for compromise, for muddling though, and for good natured tolerance will be sufficient to resolve the inevitable tensions. (Honeyford, 2006) Post-publication, Honeyford endured a protracted and bitter campaign against him leading to his eventual early retirement. The vitriolic response to his assertions for better and more integrative education did not raise the government action. Issues raised by the Honeyford Affair continue to be debated more than two decades later. Honeyfords tough and courageous questioning of issues that the government was too uncomfortable to raise and try and work through have left a lasting vacuum on integration and the harmonious and multicultural world we reasonably aspire to. In light of these affairs, the debate on faith schools which predominantly relates to maintained schools leads us first to ask what the aim and purpose of education is. Is education intended to provide us with skills for employment, in which case it is driven by a practical measurable output? Or is in intended for, as Aristotle called it, human flourishing? And are these two necessarily mutually exclusive? If education is deemed a human right, then what role does the child play in determining the education that he receives? These questions dont seem to have been directly touched upon by those debating the desirability of faith schools. Given the faith school debate touches on areas of education, politics and religion it is unlikely to be a dispassionate one. Most of the debate is opinion- rather than evidence-based (Cush p.440) and writers on the issue repeatedly bemoan the lack of empirical evidence to substantiate claims from either side. As Muslims are becoming acutely aware of their minority status, the drive towards Islamic schools is as much a response to the attack on their identity as it is about the ethos of education. According to Heffner and Zaman (2007, p. 228) In recent years, the issue of Islamic education has been a vital part of the debate about what it means to be a British Muslim today and an important terrain in the negotiation of identity, citizenship and co-existence. Mainstream education tends to view the world though an Anglo-Saxon lens and achievements are Europeanised. The study of the contributions made by Muslim scholars over the centuries in many subject areas is a boost to self-esteem and those calling for Muslim schools are looking for a change in the way the world is viewed. The mission statement of the Islamia Trust Schools states that it strive[s] to provide the best education in a secure Islamic environment through the knowledge and application of the Quran and Sunnah. (Islamia) What this requires is a reconception of the way in which any subject can be taught, negotiating as it must through the Quran and the Sunnah. The argument being made is that Muslim children are becoming de-Islamised (Khan-Cheema, p.83) and that mainstream schools are failing to provide an ethos in which all, not just secular, aspects of a childs life are catered for. Concern for the lack of single sex provision in the mainstream for girls is also voiced as a co ncern and a reason for requiring the provision of Muslim schools. The academic underachievement of Pakistanis in mainstream schools is well recognised, but their achievement in faith schools is well above average (Bolton, 2009). The direct connection linking improved academic results and faith schools should be made cautiously as academic achievement is also liked to the economic and social class of the family. The case against Muslim faith schools is a compelling one. Those fighting this position say that these schools are a breeding ground for fundamentalist and intolerant religious views that are not inclusive of the majority. They propagate segregation and voluntary apartheid and create ghettos which exclude other races and faiths, thus creating social division. With Islam almost universally cast as a threat to world order this raises questions relating to citizenship and loyalty. Those in this camp may draw some of their inspiration from the position Honeyford took on the need to integrate rather than segregate more than 2 decades ago. Why would, and how could, an immigrant who lands in the UK who is able to create for himself an environment that reflects culturally, socially, and educationally the one which he left, have any opportunity to build loyalty to his host country. Clearly the governments position on what a multicultural Britain would look like needs to be debated much more openly if only so we can try and understand how we will get there. A laissez-faire each-to-his own policy cannot surely provide the way forward. The questions Honeyford asked more than 20 years ago, distasteful as they were, are questions we might need to ask again today. References Bolton, Paul Gillie, Christine (2009). Faith schools: admissions and performance. House of Commons Library Standard Note SN/SG/4405 Cush, Denise (2005). Review: The Faith Schools Debate. British Journal of Sociology and Education, Vol.26, No.3 (Jul.,2005), pp. 435-442 Department for Children, Schools and Families (DfES). Faith in the System: The role of schools with a religious character in English education and society. Hefner, Robert W. Zaman, Muhammad Q. (2007) Schooling Islam: The culture and politics of Modern Muslim Education. Princeton University Press. Hewer, Chris (2001). Schools for Muslims. Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 27, No. 4, The State, Schools and Religion (Dec.,) 2001), pp.515-527 Hewitt, Ibrahim (1996). The Case for Muslim Schools in Issues in Islamic Education. The Muslim Educational Trust, London. Hussain, Imitiaz, A. (2003), Migration and Settlement: A Historical Perspective of Loyalty and Belonging in British Muslims: Loyalty and Belonging, ed Mohammad Siddique Seddon, Dilwar Hussain, Nadeem Malik. The Islamic Foundation, Leicestershire. Khan-Cheema, Muhammad, A. (1996). British Muslims in State Schools: a positive way forward in Issues in Islamic Education. The Muslim Educational Trust, London. Lawson, Ibrahim (2005). Leading Islamic Schools in the UK: A challenge for us all. National College for School Leadership. Merry, Michael S. Driessen, Geert (2005). Islamic Schooling in Three Western Countries: Policy and Procedure. Comparative Education, Vol. 41, No. 4 (Nov., 2005), pp. 411-432 Parker, Stephen (2005/2006). Review: In Good Faith: Schools, Religion and Public Funding. Journal of Law and Religion, Vol. 21, No. 1 (2005/2006), pp. 217-219 Speak-it Productions (2009). Film Our Lives Project http://www.youtube.com/ourlivesproject#p/u/4/lFnuhPijzXM

Duties and responsibilities of a cabin crew

Duties and responsibilities of a cabin crew IN-FLIGHT MODULE Cabin crew is primarily aboard an aircraft for the safety and welfare of the passengers and for their comfort. If there were no services of food or drink during a flight, there would still have to be a minimum presence of cabin crew for safety, which is a legal requirement. (essence-learning.com, 2014) The role can be physically and emotionally demanding. Cabin crew are expected to deal with all passengers diplomatically, even when feeling the effects of travelling through time zones and spending extended periods of time on their feet. (targetjobs, 2014) Some of these roles include supplying passengers with newspapers, magazines and in-flight amusement, checking the state and provision of emergency equipment and information for passengers, demonstrating emergency equipment and safety procedures administering first aid and dealing with emergencies, greeting passengers as they board and exit the plane, showing passengers to their seats and providing special attention to certain passengers, such as the elderly or disabled and producing written flight reports after completing a journey. (targetjobs, 2014) As cabin crew, their responsibilities are to greet the passengers as they board the aircraft, direct them to their seats and ensure that the entire luggage is safety stored away in the overhead cabins. Once all the passengers are on board then the cabin crew demonstrate the emergency procedures whilst the plane is preparing for takeoff. During a flight thecrew membersassist passengers, make calls on behalf of the captain, serve food, drinks and sell duty free goods. (essence-learning.com, 2014) In case of emergencies, cabin crews are there to reassure passengers so that they follow the correct emergency procedures. The crew may have to deal with several emergencies such as cabin fires or first aid situations. At the end of a flight cabincrew membersare there to make sure that passengers disembark the aircraft safely. Thecrew membersare then asked to complete a written report that records all details of the flight. (Essence-Learning.com, 2014) Cabin crew also make periodic announcements to passengers about flight conditions and arrival times. They also make sure that passengers with special needs are cared for in an appropriate manner. (anon, 2014) The chain of command on any aircraft is; Captain First officer Cabin Manager Flight Attendant The overall responsibility for the safe operation of an aircraft and the safety of its passengers lies with the Captain, but you as operating crew are responsible to the Captain in being capable through your flight attendant training to be able to fulfill your safety responsibilities. (flight-attendant-careers.com, 2014) Within the cabin crew job market, airlines employ a vast number of people into cabin crew support roles. These support positions provide a great way to gain cabin crew experience, and learn about how the airline industry works. (cabincrew.com, 2014) Many airport-based ground staff performs these support roles. Jobs in the industry which fall into the category of cabin crew support include crew planning, crew control, human resources and crew training. There is a great deal of planning and scheduling work that goes into flights, so administration staff will be on hand to assist at pre-flight briefings, ensuring air cabin crew are being correctly assigned their working positions, and understand any changes to how the flight will be managed. (cabincrew.com, 2014) Airlines frequently use codes in the form of abbreviated words or letters. This list covers some of the most frequently used words. The following computer codes are used in messages from airlines: CHNT – Change Name To ETA – Estimated Time of Arrival FLTFO – Flight Info HTL Hotel MCO – Miscellaneous Charge Order NOSH – No show OW One-way PNR – Passenger Name Record RCFM Reconfirm SPAV – Space Available SSR – Special Service Request TKT Ticket WCHR Wheel Chair FLY Finley in Australia EVE Evenes in Norway TOY Toyama in Japan DAY Dayton in Ohio, United States NYC New York City AVML – Asian Vegetarian Meal BBML – Infant/ Baby Food CHML – Child Meal DBML – Diabetic Meal FPML – Fruit Platter Meal SFML – Seafood Meal Types of duties cabin crew may have to undertake cabin crew seat and working position; roster duty example stand-by duty. There are two types of standby, Home reserve and Airport reserve. Home reserve means that you are on standby at home ready to take a call on your mobile phone or landline from flight scheduling that may assign you a flight or upgrade your status to field reserve. Field Reserve on the other hand, means that you are on standby but in the flight operations building at the airport with your flight handbag, trolley and suitcase, ready to be assigned any flight that needs to be covered. Duties before the pre-flight briefing include, checking roster and updates, check health, safety and security notices, check flight details (crew names, crew positions, departure gate, and aircraft registration. Importance of time keeping prior to a pre-flight briefing: to be prepared; consequences of late arrival example cabin crew offloaded from other flights, late departure of aircraft, disciplinary action. (anon, 2014) Elements of a pre-flight briefing include introduction to the crew, operating positions and responsibilities, uniform standards checked, aircraft information, health, safety and security memos, updates and notices read and understood, order of bar, meal and duty-free service and Safety and Emergency Procedures (SEP) scenario questions. (anon, 2014) Elements of post-flight briefing include reconciliation paperwork for bars and monies handed in, flight paperwork completed and filed example cabin defects reported and flight evaluation. (anon, 2014) Receive and relay safety equipment and procedures (SEP) during a pre-flight briefing include respond to Safety and Emergency Procedures (SEP) scenario questions example safety, security, in-flight medical care, location of emergency equipment, respond in a timely manner, with composure and professional attitude. (anon, 2014) Complete documentation relating to a pre-flight briefing in readiness for the flight include flight detail form (crew names and signatures, rest and duty hour, number of crew bags, equipment and security checks completed), toilet servicing form. (anon, 2014) The importance of timekeeping includes, being prepared, consequences of late arrival example offloading of crew, late departure of aircraft. Personal presentation: on and off duty and during stopovers, uniform standards, dress code for training and stopovers, adhering to grooming standards, professionalism, personal appearance, importance example creating a positive organizational image, maintaining organizational standards. (anon, 2014) Importance of task management and prioritization of tasks include routine and non-routine tasks, prioritize tasks in order of importance, and prioritize tasks in order of legal and regulatory requirements. (anon, 2014) Customer relationship management: following company procedures and industry standards; providing excellent customer service; ensuring passenger welfare; importance example to keep customers, to reward loyal customers, to attract new customers. (anon, 2014) References http://www.flight-attendant-careers.com/flight-attendant-training.html http://www.essence-learning.com/blog/duties-and-responsibilities-of-a-cabin-crew http://targetjobs.co.uk/careers-advice/job-descriptions/277171-airline-cabin-crew-job-description http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/airport_code.htm http://www.edexcel.com/migrationdocuments/BTEC%20Specialist%20Qualifications/BA025387-BTEC-L2-Introduction-to-Cabin-Crew-spec.pdf

Symbolic Features Of Gi Joe Fi :: essays research papers

An Interpretation of the Symbolic Features of the GI Joe Action Figure   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Twelve years ago the generation of today's young adults were enthralled with the endless hours of fun they got from their GI Joe action figures. Wild scenes, battles, and situations they created ran their day and formed their thoughts of the ideal man. GI Joe's physical build was looked upon as the perfect male body, with a muscular, suave look and a brave and violent temperament. This stereotypical property is a downside to the figure since it molds the views of young children in this negative way. The GI Joe was a very important piece in many young boys' lives. It was an outlet for a child's creativity and imagination, which is one of the most important factors that mold a child into a grown adult.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  GI Joes's symbolized the general census of the public that men should be physically strong and brave in physical encounters. Young boys saw the muscular build of the action figures and related that to the optimal shape that a man's body should be. GI Joe's are similar to Barbie dolls in many ways. Although GI Joe's did not come under as much criticism as the Barbie doll, the two important characteristics of the figures are the same. Both figures promote the stereotypical image of the male/female body and both figures characteristics promote the stereotypical actions of how one should act as a member of that gender. Each day of his life a young boy is learning and forming the ideals he will follow later in life. The appearance of a tall, perfectly proportional, and muscular figure molds a young boy's belief of what the perfect man should look like. The same characteristic is true about the actions that GI Joe's were expected to carry out. GI Joe's were fearless, br ave men whose mission in life was violence. When young boys played with these figures, this was usually the common role their concocted scenes would fall under. Violence and death, sounds like a pretty bad principle to instill in the minds of young boys. If one thinks about the general stereotype of the census we see that men have always been forced into these enduring roles. Even today the two characteristics demonstrated by GI Joe are prevalent. As each day progresses these characteristics are being challenged. Now more than ever the age-old beliefs of what is expected of man and woman are being redefined for a new world.

To Know a Fly Essay example -- Vincent G. Dethier To Know a Fly Essays

To Know a Fly The book, To Know a Fly by Vincent G. Dethier, is about a scientist who fell in love with the fly. Professor Dethier isn’t like most scientists who are idolized for their accomplishments and rejected for the lack of ability to communicate with society. He was known for being an outstanding researcher, and he also had the wonderful gift of communication. The fact that he was fascinated by the knowledge that could be obtained from such a simple species, such as the fly, also made him popular with the public. The main focus of the book involves Professor Dethier designing and performing various experiments. Each experiment done by Professor Dethier is very simple, therefore the reader is informed, and as Professor Dethier adds interesting facts about the experiments of the fly the reader can interpret it easier. Professor Dethier begins the book by explaining how science and scientist are often misunderstood. He continues by stating that anyone can be a scientist if they want w ish. However, they must posses certain characteristics such as love for nature, curiosity of life, and a soaring imagination. After convincing the reader that they can understand and appreciate science, Professor Dethier begins to inform the reader about the fly. He begins by defending the fly. Most everyone has a mutual understanding that flies are pests and are often considered to be disease infested. Most people don’t even want to be in the presence of a fly. Moreover, flies aren’t ...

Alexander the Great: Establishing the Supremacy of Western Thought Essa

The conquests of Alexander the Great and the significance of those conquests in establishing the supremacy of western thought. Alexander the Great started his military career on such a stellar note in 340 BC at the young age of 16. His father, Philip II was on a campaign in the east against Byzantium, having left Alexander in charge of Macedonia and during this time, a rebellious tribe attacked but was crushed by the troops led by Alexander. His efforts were lauded, he was rewarded by founding the first town of many to bear a version of his name and with Alexandropoulos, his military adventures began gloriously. During his father’s next campaign, Alexander leads the cavalry charge against a combined threat and strengthens his stance as a military leader. With Philip II’s death in 336 BC, Alexander sought approval of the army generals for the kingship, the generals agreed and Alexander was proclaimed king and ruler of Macedonia. To ensure his initial days as leader were uninterrupted he killed all other competition. 334 BC Alexander has demonstrated his ruthless actions are...

Over-the-counter (OTC) medicines

Over-the-counter (OTC) medicines are drugs you can buy without a prescription compared to prescription drugs, which may only be sold to consumers with a prescription. Some OTC medicines relieve aches, pains and itches. Some prevent or cure diseases, like tooth decay and athlete's foot. Others help manage recurring problems, like migraines. When it comes to treating such common ailments as coughs and colds, fever, heartburn, and aches and pains, people are using more types of non-prescription, over-the-counter medicines than ever before.Once consisting of a relatively small number of medications, OTC medicines now account for the majority of all medications used, including many that were once available only by prescription. There are more than 100,000 OTC products on the market today, and the market is worth  £500million-plus a year and is growing every year. Some of the most common examples of OTC drugs are pain relievers, antihistamines, cough medicines. Pain relievers are medicin es used to treat pain caused by any number of conditions. They can be used to treat headaches, joint pain, muscle cramps or minor injuries.Some examples of OTC painkillers are Anacin Tylenol and Excedrin. Generic versions of these brand-name medications can also be found. Some generic examples include aspirin, ibuprofen, and ketoprofen. Antihistamines are medications used to treat or prevent the symptoms of allergies. OTC antihistamines can be divided into two types: first and second generation. Some examples of first-generation antihistamines are Dimetapp, Benadryl. Second-generation examples include Claritin and Zyrtec. While both types can be used to treat allergies, first-generation antihistamines can also be used to treat colds. Both types can be mixed with other medications, such as painkillers, to treat several symptoms at once.OTC cough medicines are split into two separate categories: antitussives and expectorants. Antitussives function as cough suppressants. They relieve c oughing fits by blocking the reflex to cough. Expectorants thin the mucus that causes coughing, making it easier to break up and lessening the duration of the cough. Examples of OTC antitussives include Triaminic Cold and Cough and Robitussin Cough. Examples of OTC expectorants include Mucinex and Robitussin Chest Congestion. The benefits of OTC drugs are the costs to the patients and the NHS.People seeking relief from symptoms of common ailments and some diseases can avoid the cost  of a doctor's visit by purchasing OTC drugs and can still have confidence that the medicine meets necessary criteria. Also, OTC drugs are generally less expensive than prescription medicines this both benefitting the NHS and the patient. Some problems with OTC drugs have arisen with patients abusing ovOTCr the counter drugs. They are readily available to the general public. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, the number of people abusing prescription and OTC drugs jumped from 4.7 million to 6.9 million between 2005 and 2007.OTC drugs are deemed safe if used as directed. However, it seems clear that not everyone is following the directions. A big reason OTC drug abuse is prevalent is because these drugs are accessible and relatively cheap. Many people already have OTC drugs in their medicine cabinets or cupboards. There is no need to hide the drugs for fear of raising suspicions or getting arrested. Illegal drugs, which can produce the same effect as OTC drugs, are more dangerous to obtain and typically more costly. As well as abuse of OTC drugs there’s addiction Alone, codeine phosphate is only available on prescription. But it has been available OTC in low doses and in combination with aspirin, paracetamol, or ibuprofen for many years.The most common addiction is to the OTC drug Solpadeine – a combination of paracetamol and codeine. There are 4,000 known people registered that are currently have this problem. In conclusion OTC drugs can have t here pluses and negatives on the general public. It saves a lot of NHS money by having over the counter drugs by saving a lot of doctor’s time for minor ailments. However there have been a lot of problems with abuse and addictions that have arose from this questioning where some are safe for patients to be getting such access to.

Alternative Medicine and Conventional medicine

Shahrzad Nikkhah Professor Keafer English 200 29 november 2012 Alternative Medicine Growing up in a family that has been using herbal medicine for years became a motivation for me to further my knowledge of this ancient practice of alternative medicine . The world health organization has announced that about 65 and 80 percent of world’s population uses traditional medicine, since the growing belief is that to get cured of disease you need to get to the root of the problem, and reach beyond the physical body.According to all the research it seems that alternative medicine is more effective , more economical , less invasive and harmful than conventional medicine. While It has been proven that state of mind and body are linked directly , mind body medicine helps in healing the body by changing the person’s attitude which effects the immune endocrine and nervous system, while stressed mind interrupts the functioning of the immune system and causes disease. More and more peo ple are relying on the power of prayers , meditation , and herbal medicine to protect their body from negative effect of stress hormone and proper break down of food in body.It has been shown that alternative medicine has helped many with depression and chronic pain, hypertension, and diabetes. Conventional medicine is a quick fix which prevents the body from stimulating the immune system to fight an infection as in antibiotics which destroys the valuable bacteria that helps with digestion. Since the production of antibodies slows down, it prevents the future healing. CAM ( another name for alternative medicine ) helps promote natural healing process while it has by far less side effects and harm to the other organs resulting in a long term benefit.Due to low cost of CAM higher low income population can afford the health care, while the conventional medicine cost has been on the rise over inflation and wage growth. With the 13 percent of 38 million adults who use CAM in conjunction with conventional medicine in the last year the poorer population with no health insurance has been benefiting from this method of treatment, since herbs is easier to obtain , naturally available and do not to be researched.Although , alternative medicine is not completely reliable to be used on serious illnesses many Americans have turned to alternative practices since they have not seen any positive results from standard medical or surgical treatment or because the traditional treatments are too expensive or dangerous. Most alternative medicine principle is to eradicate the problem from its roots. With serious dedication , discipline , and change of life style alternative medicine is personalized to suit the needs of individual.Works Cited: Grodjesk,Joe. â€Å"Sociology Of Medicine Alternative Medicine. â€Å"customessaymeister, May 5,2001 web. Crisenri. â€Å"Pros and cons of alternative medicine. † page1,June 2008 Diggs, Charles â€Å"Alternative medicine research papp er. † Oct 20,2009 web. Epiro, E. and Nancy Walsh. â€Å"Alternative Medicine–Part Two: Mind Body Medicine–Expanding Health Model. † Patient Care 15 Sept. 1997: 127-145. Smith, Brad. â€Å"Alternative Treatments Gain Acceptance. † Denver Business Journal 18 July 1997: 2B-4B.

Ethical Perspectives Essay

Abstract This essay will research a a global organization and cultural issue that affects the organization’s interactions outside the United States. It will also define the cultural issue within the global organization as well as provide an analysis of the ethical and social responsibility issues that the organization must deal with as a result of being a global organization. The analysis will identify ethical perspectives in the global organization and it will compare these ethical perspectives across cultures involved in the global organization. Ethical Perspectives Paper Due to many strict regulations placed on corporations by the United States, a lot of them have moved their factories overseas as a way of escaping the strict regulations. South Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, and China are examples of various Third World countries that have a readily available and abundant cheap labor source. These companies take it vantage of this cheap labor as a means of fulfilling the consumer’s needs while at the same time cutting costs production. Many of these organizations have been noted by the media as abusing these forms of cheap labor and are highly criticized because of their organizational culture. The use of child labor or work conditions in the labor force are some of the malpractices these organizations are noted as using on both the local and international level. Although these organizations have been reported for doing this very little has been done to correct the problem unless someone has either gotten hurt were the people go on strike to rally for the workers’ rights. Nike Corporation is among those corporations that have been highlighted and criticized for its organizational culture. This Corporation, founded by Bill Bowerman and Philip Knight, has had companies based abroad from the very beginning in an attempt to increase its profits around the world. By doing this the company has managed to save money on production and labor costs and has been labeled a blue ribbon sports organization. There many different countries that this organization has expanded into. One of these countries is Pakistan. Pakistan, Nike company faced serious cultural issues including the use of children for labor and poor work conditions. The allegations range from situations where children’s job was to stitch soccer balls to stitching of and support garments. Boje & Khan (2009) indicate that Sialkot, Pakistan has been the place where soccer balls of Nike company and then produced for several years and it is estimated it thousands of children have been used as workers in the production process of the company’s goods. Khan (2010) indicates that childhood is perceived in different ways and that it is not across countries but also in a specific culture had across various ethnic groups (Khan, 2010). Child labor is the main cultural issue that affects the Nike Corporation. The company has been highlighted by the media through illustrating the conditions under which the Nikes factories were operating overseas and the minimal standards that had to be attained by the employees. This company’s goal was to achieve financial gain while exploiting its workers. Due to these malpractices the Nike Corporation received ceaseless attacks. Strict recommendations were set in order to improve these back conditions. With the media being involved Nike had to do something to improve how it was operating in other countries. Due to Nikes global expansion, the company was faced with various aspects of concern, costs being among those issues. In order for them to stay competitive, as it pertains to price without the need to reduce its workforce, they decided to outsource some of its manufacturing overseas. By doing so, it gave the company an advantage over its competitors as well as opening other doors of marketing for the company. Even though the shifting of jobs from the US to other countries may be viewed as an unethical  practice by others, it can be said that Nike’s decision was in the best interest of the company, as well as the employees working at the company. A company that is unable to maintain its competitive advantage within its current markets and at the same time thinking of expanding its business, will end up experiencing a stagnating growth and loss of jobs among many employees. No one will then be the winner when the company has lost his competitiveness in the industry (Etienne an d Lewis, 2005). Another thing that has to be taken into consideration are the customers. This falls within the ethical responsibility field of the company which had been overlooked for a long time. It is apparent that the Nike Corporation failed to comprehend the consequences of not following the required base market ideologies in a place where they were not required to follow stringent labor regulations. Taking jobs out of the United States is hard enough to justify, never mind the fact they were taking those jobs and moving them to a place where children were given those jobs. With child labor being a major problem is clear that Nike did not consider its ethical obligations and wound up paying the price for its malpractices. Nike was accused of lowering the human standards rights single-handedly with the goal of maximizing profits. Furthermore, Nike products have been linked to forced overtime, slave wages, and habitual abuse. The main difficulties in diversifying an organization is based on the principle of cultural adaptability while ensuring that ethical and social standards and maintain. Groundwork of the organization or company can be well described when there is a clear analysis of what takes place in organization. Nike’s decision to take the company’s business abroad was with good intent and motive for cutting costs, increasing the company’s competitiveness and profits, but should not have come at the expense of abusing child labor. The accusations placed on Nike Corporation by the media were based on poor working conditions, use of child labor, and the exploitation of wages to its employees abroad. The company was not only criticized these accusations, but were also criticized for taking jobs away from the American people. Through corporate social responsibility laws, the Nike Corporation was forced to adhere to the recommendation in order to  improve the poor working conditi ons in its factories abroad. References Boje, D, & Khan, F (2009) Story-Branding by Empire Entrepreneurs, Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, p 9-24. DeTienne, K & Lewis, L (2005) the Pragmatic and Ethical Barriers to Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure, Journal of Business Ethics, p 359-376. Khan, a (2010) Discourses on Childhood, History & Anthropology, p 101-119.

The Determinant of Economics Growth in the Emerging Markets

MSc BUSINESS ECONOMIC AND FINANCE Title of Project The determinant of economic growth in emerging markets: A case study of China. Tarik TOUAT Student ID: 10034757 August 2011 Project Supervisor: Dr. Helen Solomon. Abstract China has enjoyed a very rapid economic growth over the past decades. The impressive growth was driven by several factors. This study aims to determine those factors which contributed to unprecedented economic growth of China and show the relationship with the economic growth by an empirically investigation.The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method is applied in order to estimate a growth model using a time series data from 1984 to 2009. The results shows that trade openness, government size and inflation have a significant effect on economic growth. On the other hand, foreign direct investments, the level of human capital and return on investment have minor impact on economic growth in China. The relationship is established though the vector error correction model ( VECM), the finding is that trade openness, government size and inflation had a positive impact on gross domestic product of China in the long-run. Similar essay: Why Nations Fail Summary Chapter 5Word account: 13. 112 words. Acknowledgements Allow me to pay tribute to my supervisor, Dr. Solomon for kindly supervising this study and giving her time and her knowledge to the success of this project. I take this opportunity to thanks my elder brother Arezki TOUAT who was a model of success and constant source of motivation; I’m here to express my sincere gratitude and I wish him all the best for his wedding day. Dedication I dedicated this work to my parents Mouloud and Saliha TOUAT, who have contributed in an extraordinary way to my studies.To my younger sister Louiza TOUAT who is very special for me. Table of Contents 1INTRODUCTION6 1. 1Main objective7 1. 2Organization of the study7 2OVERVIEW OF THE CHINESE ECONOMY8 2. 1Geopolitical characteristics of China9 2. 1. 1Population9 2. 2Economic reforms in China10 3REVIEW OF LITERATURE12 3. 1Growth models12 3. 1. 1Basic Economic Growth Model12 3. 1. 2The Harrod-Domar model13 3. 1. 3Exogenous growth Solow model14 3. 1. 4The augmented Solow-MRW15 3. 1. 5The growth accounting model16 3. 2The determinants of growth17 3. 2. 1Foreign direct investment17 3. 2. Trade Openness19 3. 2. 3Human capital20 3. 2. 4Government size21 3. 2. 5Inflation22 3. 2. 6Infrastructure23 3. 2. 7Return on investment (Portfolio investment)24 4DATA AND METHODOLOGY25 4. 1Presentation of the data and statistical analysis25 4. 2Description of the variable26 4. 2. 1GDP per Capita26 4. 2. 2Foreign Direct Investment Net Inflows (% of GDP)27 4. 2. 3Trade openness28 4. 2. 4School enrolment, tertiary29 4. 2. 5General government final consumption expenditure30 4. 2. 6Inflation31 4. 2. 7Portfolio investment, bonds32 4. 2. 8Electric power consumption33 4. Descriptive Statistics34 4. 4Methodology35 4. 4. 1Estimation of the general model35 4. 4. 2The hypothesized relationships between GDP and its determinant36 5MODEL ESTIMATION AND FINDING37 5. 1Testing For Stationary using the Augmented Dickey Fuller Test37 5. 1. 1Results of the stationarity test. 39 5. 2Estimation of a Short-Run Growth Model for China41 5. 3Results of Robustness Tests44 5. 3. 1Testing for autocorrelation:44 5. 3. 2Testing for hetereoskedasticity:45 5. 3. 3Testing for non-linear functional form46 5. 4Estimating a long-run growth model for China47 5. 4. Testing for Co-integration: Engle-Granger Approach47 5. 4. 2Results using Engle and Granger Approach49 5. 4. 3Result of Johansen co-integration test. 52 5. 4. 4Vector correction model:55 6CONCLUSION59 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES Table 1: Literature review on foreign direct investment. 18 Table 2: Literature review on inflation. 22 Table 3: Literature review on return on investment24 Table 4: Descriptive statistic. 34 Table 5: ADF Test Statistics in levels39 Table 6: ADF Test Statistics in 1st difference40 Table 7: Estimation of the general growth model by OLS41Table 8: Estimation of the parsimonious model43 Table 9: Summary of the results from test for auto correlation44 Table 10: Summary of the results from test for hetereoskedasticity45 Table 11: Summary of the results from test for non-linear functional form46 Table 12: Testing the residuals from stationarity. 49 Table 13: Estimation of the Error Correction model 549 Table 14: Selecting the Appropriate Lag Length52 Table 15: Determining the number of co-integration vector with the Trace test53 Table 16: Determining the number of co-integration vector with the Maximum Eigenvalue test53Table 17: Unrestricted Johansen54 Table 18: Vector Error Correction Estimates56 FIGURES Figure 1: China nominal GDP per capita26 Figure 2: China- Foreign direct investment27 Figure 3: China -Trade openness. 28 Figure 4:China- School enrolment, tertiary29 Figure 5: China government final consumption expenditure. 30 Figure 6: Inflation in China31 Figure 7: Portfolio investment32 Figure 8: Infrastructure33 Figure 9: Graphs for stationarity in level. 62 Figure 10: Graphs for stationarity in first difference . 63 LIST OF ACCRONYMS GDP: Gross Domestic Product.GNP: Gross National Product. FDI: Foreign Direct Investment. ROI: Return On Investment. BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India and China. WTO: World trade Organization. OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development US$: United State Dollar CIA : Central Intelligence Agency ADF: Augmented Dickey-Fuller. OLS: Ordinary Least Square. VAR: Vector Autoregression Model VECM: Vector Error Correction Model. NLLS: Non-linear least squares AR: Auto Regressive Models H0: Null hypothesis H1: The alternative hypothesis I (0): Integrated of order 0 (stationary).I (1): Integrated of order 1 (stationary). TFP: Total Factor Productivity. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In last decades, we have seen new economic power emerge from low level economic development to relatively high level of economic growth. Among these emerging economies are Brazil, Russia, India and China (the BRIC). Over the past two decades, developing countries have posted high rates of e conomic growth. This has transformed them into emerging economies. There are many factors that acted as determinants of this high GDP growth rate of the erstwhile slow growing developing countries.Chinese economy is the largest of the emerging economies. Actually, China passed Japan and become the second largest economy in the world after United States of America. Subhash Chandra Jain (2006) defines emerging economy as nations with social or business activity in the process of rapid growth and industrialization. Based on data from Dow Jones classification (2010) there are around 35 emerging markets in the world with the economies of China and India considered to be the largest. China is leading the pack of emerging economies. Their economic growth has been propelled by many factors.The economic importance of China and its continued success in posting high economic growth rates makes it an ideal case for studying the determinants of economic growth in emerging economies. China has al l the characteristics of an emerging economy. It faces the many challenges that all the emerging economies continuously face and which act as the biggest barriers to their economic growth. It is in this spirit we have undertaken this study to determine whether there is evidence of relationship between some factors and economic growth in china.This dissertation presents the knowledge gap to be filled, research questions and objectives alongside the hypotheses of the study. Furthermore, it also shows to what extend the study is relevant for China, highlights the scope and the organization of the study. More specifically, the study aims to: – Review the literature on the theoretical foundation of growth: examining the different model of economic growth. – Review and describing some previous studies on some determinants and the relationship with economic growth. Main objectiveThe key objective of the research is to assess the impact of different factors that contributed to the unprecedented economic growth of China over the past few decades and determine whether those factors can be viewed as a determinant of economic growth. Organization of the study This study is organized as follows: Chapter two will give an overview of the Chinese economic and list of the major waves of reforms. The third chapter will be in two sections, the first section deals with the definition of growth and provides a review of the growth theories by illustrating patterns of some leading economists on the issue of growth.Among the models studied, we have those Harrod-Domar, Solow, and Mankin. The second section of chapter tree deals with selected reviews on some indicators that have likely slowed or promoted growth. In chapter four presents the data and describes the method of analysis adopted to estimate the determinants of growth in China. The presentation and interpretation of the results are presented in Chapter five. This is followed by Chapter six, the conclusion. CHAPT ER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE CHINESE ECONOMY According to central Intelligence agency (CIA), China is the second largest economy after the United States.The country has experienced a particularly strong economic growth since the 1980s. However, the population remains relatively poor: in purchasing power parity, an estimated per capita GDP IN 2010 TO 7,400 $ per capita. Led by the Communist Party since 1949, China has led since the late 1970s the power to call a â€Å"socialist market economy†. The public sector continues to hold an important place in economic life but private companies are playing an increasing role and the country is highly integrated into the global economic system. Since 2001, China is a member of the World Trade Organization.While agriculture still occupies much of the labor force (in 2010, 39. 5% of Chinese labor), it contributed only 9. 6% of GDP in 2010. Industry, however, takes a prominent place, employing about 27% of the working population and is the area's most prolific in China with a production of almost half of national GDP, According to the state administration of foreign exchanges, nearly 47% of GDP come from a huge surplus caused by industrial exports. This has allowed the country to build up foreign exchange reserves that reached approximately 2,450 officially billion in June 2010.According to some analysts, China will by 2020 be the second largest industrial and commercial in the world, just behind the United States, ahead of Japan and the richest states in Europe. Geopolitical characteristics of China China is located in eastern Asia, west of the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea. The country is bordered by fourteen other nations. With a total area of about 9,596,960 square kilometers (3,705,407 square miles), the country is slightly smaller than the United States. China is administratively divided into twenty-three provinces, five autonomous (self-governing) regions, and four municipalities.Populati on Since the proclamation of the People's Republic, the country experienced three censuses of population and there were 582. 6 million people in 1953, 1 billion in 1982 and 1. 14 billion in 1990. According to China demographics web site (2001), in 2005, estimated population is 1. 31 billion people (about 21 % of the world population). Since the early 1970s, the Chinese authorities launched a policy of birth control, with the aim of stabilizing the population at 1. 2 billion people in 2000. Since the 1982 census, the rate of population growth has decreased dramatically.The Chinese population reached in July 2011, 1. 4 Billion. According to China's official statistics, the rate of growth increase of about 2 to 3% per year during the first phase of demographic transition (2. 6% in 1969), fell to 1. 1% per year between 1990 and 1995. It is estimated at 1. 02% for 1995-2000 and 0. 7% for the period 2002-2020. The birth rate fell from 45% o in 1953 to 21% o in 1990, reaching 13. 10% o in 2005. At the same time, the mortality rate was reduced from 22. 5% to 6. 90%. This low mortality is due to the current youth population. In 2005, 25. % of China's populations were under 15 years, 67. 6% between 15 and 65 and 7. 6% (2005), alone, more than 65 years. The male population is 51. 50%. Economic reforms in China The economic reform called â€Å"Socialism with Chinese characteristics† started in 1978 by reformists within the Communist Party of China led by Deng Xiaoping. 1978-1984 The reform has started with the improvement of the micro-economic management (agriculture and urban industry), these reforms were implanted by Deng Xiaoping. The main objective was to encourage farmers, business leaders and employees to increase economic productivity.Effective action has been taken, by allowing farmers to keep the land's output after paying a share to the state. This move increased agricultural production, increased the living standards of hundreds of millions of farmers (B randt 2008). In rural areas, the system of collective ownership has been replaced by the household responsibility. In cities, the main objective of the reform was to increase the autonomy of enterprises. To this end, a number of experiments to improve the management system were conducted. Some of them, after the initial demonstration of their success, have extended to the whole country.The creation of joint enterprises with foreign capital is now possible. Deng Xiaoping launched the reform of the so-called â€Å"open door†, opening China to the outside. Foreign investment is now desired, and their home is concentrated to a set of areas open to foreign trade. Five special economic zones are for foreign companies from 1979 (including the cities of Guangzhou and Shanghai as well as the zone of Shenzhen, near Hong Kong), and free zones. These special economic zones were experimental laboratories for China, allowing it to gradually open up to foreign trade techniques. 1984-1991The key point of the second period was the decentralization of state control also impended by Deng Xiaoping, leaving local provincial leaders to experiment with ways to increase economic growth and privatize the state sector (Brandt 2008). The reform has created favorable conditions for enterprise with a partial autonomy of management, which had the effect of creating a supply and demand of resources of goods and services. That have achieved positive results such as foreign trade and the financing system were introduced to create favorable conditions for enterprise reform. 1993- 2005After the death of Deng Xiaoping in 1997, the radical reforms were continued by the Prime Minister Zhu Ronji who came to power in 1998. He had a goal to integrate his country in the World trade Organization (WTO), hence the importance that preceded the entry into WTO. Zhu Ronji has introduced a new program, including the reform of state enterprises, privatization of public housing, the legitimation and expa nsion of the private sector, reform of relations with foreign investors, reducing by half the bureaucracy, the acceleration of the fight against corruption and the creation of a viable unemployment insurance scheme and pension.The reform of state enterprises is central to these policies whose characteristic is to be highly interdependent. Indeed, the Chinese government has helped them to escape their social welfare function, to observe the principles of the market, to increase the competitiveness by upgrading their management system After accession to the WTO, China has continued this wave of reforms to modernize its economy and metamorphosed with the rules of the WTO. CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Growth models Explanatory theories of growth are relatively recent in the history of economic thought.These theories have led to highlight the role of technical progress in growth. In the long run, only the technical progress leads to a more productive economy. However, each of these gro wth theories have weaknesses because they are able to fully explain the determinants of growth in any given economy. With this in mind that many economists have given their vision of growth. Basic Economic Growth Model The main factors of production under a basic economic growth model are the stock of capital and labor force. The output is a function of capital and labor. At national level, an aggregate production function can be represented by the formula:Y=F(K,L)†¦. (1) Where Y is output, K is capital and L is labor. Increased production (Y) depends on the increase in capital stock (K) through investment and depreciation, and increased labor supply (L) by the population growth. The amount of capital investment depends on savings and is calculated by multiplying the average savings rate in a country by domestic production. Labor supply is based on demographics. The Harrod-Domar model The Harrod-Domar model is the first formal economic model of growth. This model has opened the way for modern models of growth, particularly in the Solow model.The Harrod-Domar model is intended to extend over a long period of Keynes' General Theory, which covered only the short term. As the General Theory, the Harrod-Domar model aims to highlight the unstable nature of economic growth and the need for state intervention. In the Harrod-Domar model, there is no guarantee that an economy is on a stable growth path. This model was presented by Roy Forbes Harrod (1939) in the book â€Å"Toward a dynamic economics† and Evsey Domar in 1947 in an article entitled â€Å"Expansion and Employment† published in American Economic Review.The model focuses on two critical aspects of the growth process: saving and the efficiency with which capital is used in investment. This model can provide accurate short term predictions of growth and has been used extensively in developing countries to determine the â€Å"required† investment rate or â€Å"financing gap† to be covered in order to achieve a target growth rate. The Harrod-Domar model is simple with relatively small data requirements and the equation is easy to use. However, the model only remains in equilibrium with full employment of both labor force and capital tock causing inaccurate longer term economic predictions and fails to account for technological change and productivity gains considered essential for long-term growth and development. The equation in the Harrod-Domar model is: Y = K/v (2) Where v is a constant found by dividing capital (K) by investment (Y), v is the capital-output ratio. This ratio is primarily a measure of the productivity of capital or investment. Exogenous growth Solow model The Solow model is one of the main models of the theory of economic growth.Developed by Robert Solow (1956), it is a model of neoclassical economics. The model is based on a production function with two factors: labor and capital. Production thus results solely from the combination of s etting a certain amount of capital (means of production) and work (labor). The Solow model is based on the assumption that production function with the property of diminishing returns where each additional increment in capital per worker results in less output. It is also assumed that the factors of production are used effectively by all countries.By assuming that the population has a growth rate that Solow called â€Å"natural† (not influenced by the economy), the model derived three predictions: 1. Increase the amount of capital (i. e. investing) increases growth: with more capital, labor productivity increases (Called apparent). 2. Poor countries have a growth rate higher than rich countries. Indeed, they have accumulated less capital, and therefore they knew of diminishing returns lower. 3. Due to diminishing returns of inputs, economies will reach a point where any increase in factors of production no longer results in increased production. This corresponds to the steady state.Solow noted, however, that this third prediction is unrealistic: in fact, the savings never reach this stage because of technical progress which increases the productivity of factors. In other words, long-term growth comes from technological progress. However, this technological progress is exogenous to the model. The model implies â€Å"that the growth of income per capita cannot be sustained without continued technological progress. Whereas, Harrod-Domar model have identified capital accumulation as major source of development. Clearly the difference stems from different assumptions of the production function.In the Solow model, over time poor and rich countries incomes should converge. The Solow growth model takes the rate of saving; population growth and technological e. g, improved machinery, computers etc progresses are exogenous. There are two inputs capital and labor, which are paid their marginal products. By assuming a Cobb-Douglas production functional which is ge nerally used to represent the relationship of an output to inputs, the model is as follow: Y (t) = K (t) ? [A(t)L(t)] 1- ? (3) 0 < ? < 1 Y is output, K is capital, L is labor, and A is a parameter which might influence growth.The augmented Solow-MRW This model was introduced by Mankiw et al (1992), in their article â€Å"A Contribution to the Empiric of Economic Growth†, Mankiw, Romer, and Weil (1992), have augmented the standard Solow model by adding Human capital to the production function. Therefore, the inputs of the model would include a function of stocks of capital, labour, human capital and productivity. According to Cobb-Douglas production function in (4), production at time t in country i is given by Yi (t) = Ki (t) ? Hi (t) ? [Ai (t)Li (t)] 1- ? – ? (4) Where ? , ? ? [O,1] ? + ? ? [O,1],and t denotes time.This implies that the production function exhibits constant returns to scale in its three factors: physical capital (K), human capital (H), and productivit y-augmented labor (AL). Specifically, it is a Cobb-Douglas production function. All markets (both input and output markets) are assumed to be perfectly competitive. All firms are assumed to be identical. The economy can then be described by a representative agent. The growth accounting model The theoretical framework of the Solow growth model describes the sources of economic growth, and the consequences for long-run growth of changes in the economic environment and in economic policy.However, some economists have built up an alternative framework which examines economic growth in freer framework without necessarily being bound to adopt in advance the conclusions of our economic theories. This framework is called growth accounting which gives us a different perspective on the sources of economic growth. The model starts wilt a production function which shows that output Y is as a some particular time t as a function of the economy’s stock of capital Kt, its labour force Lt, a nd the economy’s total factor productivity At. The Cobb-Douglas form of the production function is: Y = F (A, K, L) (5)Since A captures not only efficiency gains but also the net effect of errors and omissions from economic data, the residual A is sometimes referred to as a measure of our ignorance about the growth process. The determinants of growth To study the impact of determinants on economic growth in China, it is necessary to present the theoretical foundations underlying the role of each determinant is expected to play in an economy, especially in the early stages of growth. We can distinguish several types of determinants for growth: natural resources, external environment, population, innovation, investment, knowledge, consistency of development.In this section, we will see a wide range of studies done to investigate the relationship between the different determinant and growth. Foreign direct investment According to the IMF and OECD definitions, direct investment r eflects the aim of obtaining a lasting interest by a resident entity of one economy (direct investor) in an enterprise that is resident in another economy (the direct investment enterprise). The â€Å"lasting interest† implies the existence of a long-term relationship between the direct investor and the direct investment enterprise and a significant degree of influence on the management of the latter.Direct investment involves both the initial transaction establishing the relationship between the investor and the enterprise and all subsequent capital transactions between them and among affiliated enterprises, both incorporated and unincorporated. It should be noted that capital transactions which do not give rise to any settlement, e. g. an interchange of shares. FDI is expected to increase employment, enhancing labor productivity, exports, lowers rental rate of capital and thus be a source of growth and productivity gains.It is also a vehicle for technology transfer, which i s crucial for take-off and recovery pathways to production to more high-tech. In contrast, it can also discourage competition and even corrupt the development path of a country. Numerous empirical studies have analyzed the impact of FDI on economic growth with divergent results. While some studies argue that FDI has a positive effects on economic growth in host countries, others against thinking that FDI is not a necessary condition or sufficient for growth. The following table provides some empirical studies on the impact of FDI on economic growth.Attention will be drawn to the latest studies. Table 1: Literature review on foreign direct investment Author| Sample Size andTime Period| EconometricMethod and Tests| Empirical Evidences| Basu & Guariglia(2007). | 119 developingcountries1970 – 1999. | GeneralizedMethods ofMoments (GMM)| FDI enhances both educational inequalities and economic growth in developing countries. However, itreduces the share of agriculture sector in GDP. | Johnson(2006). | 90 developed anddevelopingcountries1980 – 2002. | OLS regression| FDI inflows accelerate economic growth in developing countries. But it is not valid for developed countries. Hyun(2006). | 59 developingcountries1984 – 1995. | OLS regression| FDI has positive effect on economic growth but lagged FDI values have no positive effects on current economic growth. | Durham(2004). | 80 countries1979 – 1998. | Extreme BoundAnalysis(SensitivityAnalysis)| There is no direct positive effect of current and lagged values of FDI and portfolio investment on economicgrowth. | Carkovic & Levine(2002). | 72 developed anddevelopingcountries1960 – 1995. | OLS regression and GMM| FDI alone has no statistically significant affect on economic growth. | Obwona(2001)| Uganda1975 – 1991. 2 Stage LeastSquares| FDI has a positive effect on economic growth in Uganda. | Berthelemy & Demurger(2000). | 24 Chineseprovinces1985 – 1996. | GMM| FDI plays an important role in the economic growth of Chinese provinces. | Source: Endogenous Determination of FDI Growth and Economic Growth: The OECD Case (2008). The latest empirical literature has provided more-or-less consistent findings affirming a significant positive link between FDI and GDP. Trade Openness Another major determinant of growth is trades openness; it has been used in the empirical literature to investigate the relationship between openness and growth.First, the most basic measure of openness is the simple trade shares, which is exports plus imports divided by GDP. A large number of studies used trade shares in GDP and have provided that open economies increased their GDP faster than closed economies. This has led to the conclusion that trade openness has a positive relationship with Growth as reviewed in Dollar (1992), Sachs and Warner (1995), Edwards, (1998), Dollar and Kraay (2000). On the other hand, Levine and Renelt (1992); Rodriguez and Rodrik (1999); Vamvakidis (200 2) have criticized the robustness of these findings especially on methodological and measurement grounds.Openness affects economic growth through several channels such as exploitation of comparative advantage, technology transfer and diffusion of knowledge, increasing scale economies and exposure to competition. However, a recent study from Halit Yanikkaya (2002) in his paper â€Å"Trade openness and economic growth a cross-country empirical investigation†, have investigates the relationship between a wide variety of trade openness measures and growth. He used two types of openness measures. The first group was various measures of trade volumes (except population densities).Trade shares, export shares, and import shares in GDP were found to be significantly and positively correlated with growth. Another key finding in his study was that the growth effects of trade with developed countries are not considerably different from trade with developing countries. Furthermore, popula tion densities also positively affect growth through increasing trade volumes. Hence, the regression results for trade volumes provide substantial support for the hypothesis that trade promotes growth through channels such as technology transfers, scale economies. Human capitalThe role of Human capital for economic growth has been well documented in the economic literature which has long recognized that the quality of labor factor plays an essential role in the growth process. Indeed, the classical economist Adam Smith has highlighted the importance of the quality of the workforce in the competitiveness and economic growth in the long term. Adam Smith (1776) also showed that the wealth of individuals and nations depends on the skills levels of workers. The specialization of labor implies that there are different types of tasks that each individual does what he is alcified. The notion of â€Å"division of labor† also highlights the growth potential of the product linked to the improvement of the organization or production method. This improvement is made possible by dynamic entrepreneurs and skilled workers and the ability or qualification to perform specific tasks. The major recent contributions to the empirical, show that the growth of human capital was an important component of economic growth, therefore, it had a legitimate place in the aggregate production function Solow (1956) et Swan (1956), Mankiw, Romer & Weil(1 992).Furthermore, a large number of other studies have found evidence suggesting that educated population is key determinant of economic growth (see Barro, 1991; Mankiw et al, 1992; Barro and Sala-i-Marin, 1995; Brunetti et al, 1998, Hanushek and Kimko, 2000). Government size The size of the government can affect the economic growth through many channels, such as expenditure, the efficiency of resource allocation, taxation and the budget balance on several economic issues.The recent economic literature seems to point a negative relation ship between government size (General government final consumption expenditure) and economic growth (Guseh, 1997; Dalagamas, 2000). In the empirical study of Yesim (2005), relatively small sizes of government are detrimental to economic growth, while medium sized government affects it positively. According to Barro (1991), government size may have a negative impact on economic growth due to government inefficiencies, excess burden of taxation and distortion of the incentives systems.However, according to Ghali (1998), it may also have positive effects on growth due to beneficial externalities such as the development of a legal, administrative and economic infrastructure and interventions to offset market failures. Inflation Mankiw (2002) defined inflation as â€Å"a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time†. Inflation reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation r ate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index (normally the Consumer Price Index) over time.A number of empirical studies have been devoted to the link between economic growth and inflation. These studies have objective to determine the empirical relationship between growth and inflation, the following table provide some empirical studies on the impact of Inflation on economic growth. Attention will be drawn to the latest studies. Table 2: Literature review on inflation Author| Sample Size andTime Period| EconometricMethod and Tests| Empirical Evidences| Khan & Senhadji (2001). | 140 developed anddeveloping countriesduring the period 1960-98. Non-linear least squares (NLLS). | Inflation has a negative effect on growth. The threshold is lower for industrialized countries than it is for developing countries. | Atish & Phillips (1998). | 145 countries during the period 1960-96. | Multivariate regression analysis. | Negative relationshipbetween inflation and growth that is statistically significant. | Michael Sarel (1995)| 87 countries, during the period 1970 – 90. | OLS regression| A specific numerical target for policy: keep inflation below the structural break. | Joao Ricardo Faria and Francisco Galrao Carneiro (2001). Monthly inflation rateof Brazil and real output for the period 1980 -95. | The Blanchard and Quay (1989) decomposition. | The results indicated that in the short-run, there is a negative impact of inflation on output. | Robert J. Barro (1995). | 100 countries from 1960 to 1990| Based on an extended view of the neoclassical growth model. | The impact effects from an increase in average inflation by 10 percentage pointsper year are a reduction of the growth rate of real per capita GDP by 0. 2-0. 3% points per year. | Ghosh and phillips(1998). | 145 countries, over the 1960-96 period. Panel regression. | At very low ratesof inflation (around 2 -3 percent a year or lower), inflation and growth arepositively correlated. | From the table 2, we can conclude that most of the findings of the empirical studies have provided an evidence of a negative relationship between inflation and growth. However, Tobin (1972) suggests that inflation can have a positive relationship to economic growth. This is because inflation can cause individuals to substitute out of money and into interest earning assets, which leads to greater capital intensity and promotes economic growth.In other words, an increase in inflation can result in higher output; this effect is known as the Tobin effect. Infrastructure In a broad sense, the concept of infrastructure services closely associated with roads, highways, railways, ports and airports, telecommunications networks, the national distribution networks of gas, electricity and water, i. e. all investments that develop and facilitate the movement of people, goods and production (Barro, 1990). A large empirical literature to examine the effects of public infrastructure on the growth of na tions but also on local growth, especially scale of American States.Beyond the pioneering work of Ratner (1983) on the productive infrastructure, has been the work of Ashauer (1989) which showed a positive effect of public capital on output or productivity companies. Although recently confirmed by Munnell (1990), this proposal continues to generate various methodological criticisms mainly because many economists believe that the marginal productivity of infrastructure implied by the estimates is excessively high. Return on investment (Portfolio investment)The definition of portfolio investment is the acquisition of financial assets (which includes stock, bonds, deposits, and currencies) from one country in another country. In contrast to foreign direct investment, which is the acquisition of controlling interest in foreign firms and businesses, portfolio investment is foreign investment into the stock markets. Most economists consider foreign direct investment more useful than portf olio investment since this last one is generally regarded as temporal and can leave the foreign country at the first sign of troubleThe table below shows some empirical studies on the impact of portfolio investment on Economic Growth in Developing and Developed Economies and their findings. Table 3: Literature review on return on investment Author| Sample Size andTime Period| Empirical Evidences| Butkiewicz and Yanikkaya (2008). | 114 developed and developing countries over the period going from 1970 to 1997. | The study reveals that the countries which receive important volumes of direct investment flowing and portfolio investment will carry out a rapid growth. | Rodrik (1998) and Klein and Olivei (2008). 100 developed and developing countries 1975-89 and 1986-95. | The study reveals that country which does not impose a restriction on capital flows is lucky more to carry out a rapid growth than that closed. | Chambet and Gibson (2008). | 25 emerging markets from 1995 to 2004. | Por tfolio equity flows have positive effects on output growth. | The literature contains a large number of variables, other than the variables we have listed in this chapter, which might have a significant impact on economic growth. CHAPTER 4 DATA AND METHODOLOGYPresentation of the data and statistical analysis Measuring the impact of several aggregates on economic growth in China will be done using an econometric model estimated in the section methodology. It will also test the veracity of the assumptions made in the literature review. The general idea is that from the data on the various activities in China over a short and a long period, it is highlighted, through statistical and econometric techniques the relationship between economic performances achieved in the last decades and performance the overall economy in China.Before evaluating the regression results, the the variables will be used in the econometric model to determine the sources of economic growth in China will be expla ined. The variable used to measure economic performance is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. GDP per capita it represents all the wealth created in an economy during a year. It gives the best measure of activity level. Therefore, the dependent variables used in the model is GDP per capita (current US $). There are seven independent variables used in the model: * Foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of GDP). * Trade openness (% of GDP). School enrollment, tertiary (% gross). * General government final consumption expenditure (% of GDP). * Inflation, GDP deflator (annual %). * Portfolio investment, bonds (PPG + PNG) (NFL, current US$). The data used for this study is annual data from 1984 to 2009 and was obtained from the World Bank. This relatively long period has the advantage of lending itself to a range of econometric tests yielding robust results. It also allows us to show the effects of new reforms to the Chinese economy that have introduced a new management system t o help increase the productivity in the 80’s.The raw data table is presented in Annex 1 and the Log form in Annex 2, more detailed description of these data will be done in the next section 4. 2. Description of the variable The explanatory variables were selected from theory outlined in literature review. We grouped the variables that are likely to have a material effect on the endogenous variable. GDP per Capita: The World Bank national accounts data (2011)† define the gross domestic product as the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products†.GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by midyear population. 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 1: China nominal GDP per capita Since the introduction of the economic reforms, the GDP has experienced significant growth since the 1980s, it has hit a record almost USD 4000 Trillion in the year 2009, providing further evidence of the growth potential of the Chinese market. This growth continued despite the many attempts by the central government to cool down the economy after pressure from the international community.Foreign Direct Investment Net Inflows (% of GDP) According to the World Bank, â€Å"foreign direct investment are the net inflows of investment to acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more of voting stock) in an enterprise operating in an economy other than that of the investor. It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as shown in the balance of payments† Figure 2: China- Foreign direct investment The Foreign direct investment; net inflows (% of GDP) in China was reported at 3. 42 in 2008.This series shows net inflows (new investment inflows less disinvestment) in the reporting economy from foreign investors, and is divided by GDP. China's economy is the second largest in the world after that of the United States. Trade openness 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 3: China -Trade openness. As can be seen in the graph, the trade openness in China is more open than it was 20 years ago, and that was due to the economic openness which increases in trade (as part of the reforms). The trade openness (% of GDP) in China was reported at 59. 0 in 2008, according to the World Bank† Merchandise trade as a share of GDP is the sum of merchandise exports and imports divided by the value of GDP, all in current U. S. dollars. China's economy is the second largest in the world after that of the United States†. School enrolment, tertiary 0 5 10 15 20 25 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 4: China- School enrolment, tertiary The school enrolment, tertiary, have known an import increase since the reform, Between 1996 and 2009, enrollment in higher education increased from approximate 5% to almost 25% of GDP per capita.Chinese universities form more and more engineers and scientists each year. This shows that China is on the road to a knowledge-based economy. The Gross enrolment ratio is the ratio of total enrolment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Tertiary education, whether or not to an advanced research qualification, normally requires, as a minimum condition of admission, the successful completion of education at the secondary level. General government final consumption expenditure 13. 0 13. 5 14. 0 14. 5 15. 0 15. 5 16. 0 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 8 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 5: China government final consumption expenditure. The General government final consumption expenditure (% of GDP) in China was reported at 13. 5 % in 2007, it has hit almost 16% in the year 2001. According to the World Bank. General government final consumption expenditure (formerly general government consumption) includes all government current expenditures for purchases of goods and services (including compensation of employees). It also includes most expenditure on national defense and security, but excludes government military expenditures that are part of government capital formation.Inflation Inflation rate refers to a general rise in prices measured against a standard level of purchasing power. The most well known measures of Inflation are the CPI which measures consumer prices, and the GDP deflator, which measures inflation in the whole of the domestic economy. -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 6: Inflation in China China’s average inflation rate of 2% over the past ten years has been unusually low for a developing country   The inflation rate in China was last reported at 5. 5 % in 2011 and its highest historical rate of 22% in 1994 and a low record of -2. 0 % in 1999. Portfolio investment, bonds -3,000,000,000 -2,000,000,000 -1 ,000,000,000 0 1,000,000,000 2,000,000,000 3,000,000,000 4,000,000,000 5,000,000,000 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 7: Portfolio investment The Portfolio investment; bonds (PPG + PNG) (NFL; US dollar) in China was reported at approximate -2 billion in 2008, its highest hit was reported almost 5 billion in the years 2005 According to the World Bank, bonds are securities issued with a fixed rate of interest for a period of more than one year.They include net flows through cross-border public and publicly guaranteed and private nonguaranteed bond issues. Data are in current U. S. dollars. Electric power consumption 0 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,800 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 Figure 8: Infrastructure China has been spending heavily in physical Infrastructure since the 90’s and that due to economic policy to improve the economic growth owing to its economic expansion. Figure 8 shows that the consumption of electricity has increased during the last 20 years. In 2009, it has hit a record of electric power consumption of 2400 kWh per capita.We measure infrastructure by looking at the Electric power consumption (kWh per capita) which measures the production of power plants and combined heat and power plants less transmission, distribution, and transformation losses and own use by heat and power plants. Descriptive Statistics The table below shows a summary statistic for the dataset used, the means differ significantly across the variable. The skewness coefficient is close to 0 for most values. The null hypothesis of the Jarque Bera normality test is that the residuals are normally distributed.The decision rule is to accept this hypothesis if the statistic of Jarque Bera (JB) is less than 5. 99. Here, the JB statistic is less than 5. 99 for all the series which means we cannot reject the null; there is no evidence of non-normally distributed residuals, except for Foreign direct investment which shows JB higher that 5. 99. Table 4: Descriptive statistic | ForeignDirectInvestmentNet inflows| GrowthDomesticProduct| Government Final Consumption | The level of human capital| Inflation| Infrastructure| Trade openness| Return on investment| Mean| 0. 020258| 0. 047137| -0. 0028| 0. 04396| -0. 01937| 0. 03529| 0. 1491| -0. 62059| Median| -0. 0042| 0. 041494| -0. 00224| 0. 037303| -0. 0022| 0. 033887| 0. 01207| 0. 108995| Maximum| 0. 374106| 0. 109831| 0. 037975| 0. 108951| 0. 650219| 0. 065986| 0. 108611| 18. 08911| Minimum| -0. 31887| -0. 04897| -0. 04678| -0. 01321| -0. 68278| 0. 00866| -0. 10326| -18. 5564| Std. Dev. | 0. 138935| 0. 038244| 0. 019386| 0. 038065| 0. 338516| 0. 014811| 0. 045317| 10. 35226| Skewness| 0. 67502| -0. 30828| -0. 19908| 0. 194607| -0. 13538| 0. 431179| -0. 24933| -0. 07282| Kurtosis| 5. 047| 3. 28519| 2. 723548| 1. 917252| 2. 50906| 2. 477846| 3. 399615| 2. 832023| Jarque-Bera| 6. 63353| 0. 480719| 0. 244745| 1. 378992| 0. 327435| 1. 058651| 0. 425367| 0. 051484| Probability| 0. 043645| 0. 786345| 0. 884819| 0. 501829| 0. 848982| 0. 589002| 0. 808412| 0. 974587| Sum| 0. 506443| 1. 17842| -0. 06988| 1. 098993| -0. 4842| 0. 882238| 0. 372743| -15. 5147| Sum Sq. Dev. | 0. 463268| 0. 035102| 0. 00902| 0. 034775| 2. 750233| 0. 005265| 0. 049286| 2572. 062| Observations| 25| 25| 25| 25| 25| 25| 25| 25| Methodology The objective of this study is to determine the impact of different factors that contributed to the unprecedented economic growth of China over the past few decades.In order to control for the problems of misspecification caused by the application of classical linear regression methods, recent developments in time series econometrics will be used such as the Error Correction Models and Johansen co-integration test. In this section, we explain the methodology that is the basis for estimating the appropriate model for the Chinese economy. The impact of different factors that contributed to the unprecedented economic growth of China over the past few decades and d etermine whether those factors can be viewed as a determinant of economic growth.Estimation of the general model The literature review has identified some models and we chose a variant of the model presented by Robert Solow (1957). Indeed, the standard growth accounting approach seems appropriate which is decomposed into stocks of capital, labor, human capital and productivity. The model that we suggest to use is based on a functional form of Cobb Douglas: GDP=F( FDI, OPEN, HUMCAP , GOVSIZE, INFL, ROI) †¦(5) The dependent variable is the growth rate of real gross domestic product per capita.All the independents variables are derived from the neoclassical theory of growth mentioned in the literature reviews in chapter tree. The empirical model used to examine the determinants of growth in China is shown in equation (6) below: ? LGDP=? + ? 1 ? LFDI + ? 2 ? LOPEN + ? 3 ? LHUMCAP + ? 5 ? LGOVSIZE + ? 7 ? LINFL + ? 4 ? LROI +?. †¦ (6) Where: The ? is the intercept and ? the err or term. The variables used for the construction of the models are: LGDP = Log of real gross domestic product per capita. LFDI = Log of foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of GDP). LOPEN = Log of trade openness (% of GDP).LHUMCAP = Log of the level of human capital (School enrolment, tertiary (% gross). LGOVSIZE = Log of general government final consumption expenditure (% of GDP). LINFL = Log of inflation, GDP deflator (annual %). LROI = Log of return on investment (long-term US interest rate): Portfolio investment, bonds). We have taken the logs of the variables in order to linearise the model. Furthermore the variables are tested for unit roots and are differenced accordingly to achieve stationarity. The results showed that most of the variables were I (1). The hypothesized relationships between GDP and its determinant:In the following table, we present the relationship between GDP and some of its determinant according to the literature reviews. Determinant of growth | Relat ion with Growth Domestic Product| Foreign direct investment| +| Trade openness| +| The level of human capital| +| General government final consumption| +/-| Inflation| -| Return on investment| +| CHAPTER 5 MODEL ESTIMATION AND FINDING This chapter presents the methods and estimation techniques used to determine the long-run and short-run growth for China. The empirical testing of this estimation will be done by following these tests: Determine whether the series are stationary or not by using the ADF test. * Estimating the OLS model with general equation. * Testing for Co integration using Engle and Granger technique and the Johansen cointegration test to see if the determinants of growth apply in the long run. * Estimating a VECM to examine the dynamics in the short-run and the adjustment of co-integration error term. 1. 1 Testing For Stationary using the Augmented Dickey Fuller Test: To avoid spurious regressions, it is necessary to study the characteristics of the series to see i f they are stationary or not.Equation tests for unit roots using the Simple Dickey-Fuller test. Yt=pYt-1 + ut (7) Yt will be stationary of the estimated value of p is less than 1. Yt will not be stationary of the estimated value of p is more or equal to 1. Therefore, we check for H0: p= 1 (Yt is not stationary) H1: p < 1 (Yt is stationary) A more convenient version of this test is to transform the model (by subtracting Yt-1 on both sides) and obtain the following: Yt=pYt-1 + ut (7) Where ? = p- 1. We can hence estimate equation (7) and test for ? as follows: H0: ? = 0 (Yt is not stationary) H1: ? lt; 0 (Yt is stationary) In equation (7) which is derived from equation (6), we are assuming that there are no constant and time trend (deterministic trend). There are 2 more versions of the Dickey-Fuller tests for unit roots shown in equations (8) and (9): In testing for unit roots, equation (8) includes a constant and equation (9) includes both a constant and a time trend. ?Yt=? 1 + ? Yt- 1 + ut †¦ (8) ?Yt=? 1 + ? 2t+ ? Yt-1 + ut †¦ (9) In equations (8) and (9), the DF test is still testing whether ? = 0. Generally, we look at the plot of the variable and decide which of equations to use.However, equations (7), (8) and (9) may suffer from autocorrelation and the test-statistics may be invalid. To solve the autocorrelation problem, we keep adding lags of the dependent variables (? Yt) until the problem disappears. The optimal number of lags are given by the SIC or AIC, but EViews will determine that automatically. This is called the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test. Using model (4), for example, the ADF model: ?Yt=? 1 + ? 2t+ ? Yt-1 + ? Yt-1 + ? Yt-2 + †¦ + ut†¦ (10) If the variables are found to be non-stationary, we transform them by differencing the variables to make them stationaryFor instance, let denote ? Yt = Dt . If Yt is not stationary, we take the first difference of Yt (? Yt ), and if we find that ? Yt is stationary, we say that Yt is integrated of order 1. However, if it’s not the case, we take the first difference of Dt (? Dt ), , If ? Dt is stationary, we say that Yt is integrated or order 2 or I(2). First all, before we undertake the test for stationary it’s useful to visualize the variables on a graph to see whether we need a constant or time trend or both in the ADF test. (See groupe figures 9. ). We have found that all the variables need a constant.Results of the stationarity test. The decision is made by comparing â€Å"ADF† to â€Å"critical value: If ADF> CV, then we accept the null hypothesis of non-stationarity of the variable and whether ADF [? 2(p)] one rejects the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation of order p. If LMA(p) < [? 2(p)] one cannot reject the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation of order p. Or equivalently, H0 = 0 there is no autocorrelation. H1 = different from 0, then the autocorrelation The statistic is distributed chi-squared, with p degrees of freedom. Acce pt H0 if the p-value of the Breusch-Godfrey statistic is greater than 0. 05.Table 9: Summary of the results from test for autocorrelation Models| Obs. * R-squared| Prob. Chi-Squared| Observation| Model 2| 0. 189117| | 0. 9098| | Autocorrelation is insignificant at the 5% level. | Model 3| 0. 267317| | 0. 8749| | Autocorrelation is insignificant at the 5% level. | Model 4| 0. 308434| | 0. 8571| | Autocorrelation is insignificant at the 5% level. | Model 5| 2. 285405| | 0. 3190| | Autocorrelation is insignifican